Polyembryonic Insects: An Extreme Clonal Reproductive Strategy (Entomology Monographs)

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Overview of Polyembryony
	1.1 Definition of Polyembryony
	1.2 Category of Polyembryony
	1.3 Polyembryony in Animals
		1.3.1 Cnidaria
		1.3.2 Bryozoa (Ectoprocta)
		1.3.3 Platyhelminthes
		1.3.4 Echinodermata
		1.3.5 Chordata
		1.3.6 Arthropoda, exclusive of Insecta
		1.3.7 Insecta
			1.3.7.1 Strepsiptera
			1.3.7.2 Hymenoptera
	1.4 Polyembryony in Hymenoptera, Exclusive of Encyrtidae
		1.4.1 Dryinidae
		1.4.2 Platygastridae
			1.4.2.1 Monoembryony in the Genus Platygaster
			1.4.2.2 Facultative Polyembryony in the Genus Platygaster
			1.4.2.3 Obligate Polyembryony in the Genus Platygaster
			1.4.2.4 Occasional Polyembryony in the Order Platygastridae
		1.4.3 Braconidae
			1.4.3.1 Polyembryonic Species in the Genus Macrocentrus
			1.4.3.2 Polyembryony in Macrocentrus cingulum
			1.4.3.3 Segment Development and Heterochronic Shift in Macrocentrus cingulum
			1.4.3.4 Host-Parasite Interaction in Macrocentrus cingulum
			1.4.3.5 Self-Superparasitism and Mixed-Sex Broods in Macrocentrus cingulum
			1.4.3.6 Genomic Features of Polyembryony and Immune Evasion in Macrocentrus cingulum
	References
Chapter 2: Polyembryony in Encyrtid Parasitoids
	2.1 List of Polyembryonic Species in Encyrtidae
		2.1.1 Ageniaspis
		2.1.2 Copidosoma
	2.2 Introduction to Polyembryony in the Genus Ageniaspis
		2.2.1 Ageniaspis atricollis
		2.2.2 Ageniaspis bicoloripes
		2.2.3 Ageniaspis citricola
		2.2.4 Ageniaspis fuscicollis
		2.2.5 Ageniaspis mayri
		2.2.6 Ageniaspis testaceipes
	2.3 Introduction to Polyembryony in the Genus Copidosoma
		2.3.1 Copidosoma aithyia
		2.3.2 Copidosoma ancharus
		2.3.3 Copidosoma aretas
		2.3.4 Copidosoma bakeri
		2.3.5 Copidosoma boucheanum
		2.3.6 Copidosoma desantisi
		2.3.7 Copidosoma filicorne
		2.3.8 Copidosoma floridanum
		2.3.9 Copidosoma gelechiae
		2.3.10 Copidosoma koehleri
		2.3.11 Copidosoma peticus
		2.3.12 Copidosoma plethoricum
		2.3.13 Copidosoma sosares
		2.3.14 Copidosoma tanytmemus
		2.3.15 Copidosoma thompsoni
		2.3.16 Copidosoma truncatellum
		2.3.17 Copidosoma varicorne
	2.4 Embryonic Development in Polyembryonic Encyrtidae
		2.4.1 Classical Observations
		2.4.2 Current Knowledge on Early Embryonic Development in Copidosoma floridanum
		2.4.3 Proliferation of Copidosoma floridanum Embryos
		2.4.4 Morphogenesis in Copidosoma floridanum Embryos
		2.4.5 Pattern Formation and Retainment of an Undifferentiated State in Copidosoma floridanum
		2.4.6 Germ Cell Formation in Copidosoma floridanum
		2.4.7 Does Copidosoma floridanum Have a Short or Long Germ Band?
		2.4.8 Trophamnion/Extraembryonic Membrane of Polyembryonic Encyrtidae
		2.4.9 Precocious Larvae of Copidosoma floridanum
		2.4.10 Differences in Polyembryonic Development Between Encyrtidae and Braconidae
		2.4.11 Comparison of Embryogenesis in Copidosoma floridanum and Mammals
		2.4.12 Genomic Features of Polyembryony in Copidosoma floridanum
	References
Chapter 3: Host-Polyembryonic Parasitoid Interactions
	3.1 Evasion of the Host Immune System and Methods of Host Entry
		3.1.1 Overview of the Insect Immune System
		3.1.2 Parasitoid Resistance Mechanisms Against Host Immune Responses
			3.1.2.1 Passive Evasion (Immune Avoidance)
			3.1.2.2 Active Evasion (Destruction and Suppression)
		3.1.3 Passive Evasion of the Host Immune System by the Polyembryonic Braconid Macrocentrus cingulum
		3.1.4 Host Entry by Tissue-Compatible Invasion in the Polyembryonic Encyrtid Copidosoma floridanum
			3.1.4.1 Host Invasion by Motile Morulae
			3.1.4.2 Microstructural Analysis of the Host-Parasitoid Interaction
			3.1.4.3 Tissue-Compatible Invasion of Phylogenetically Distant Organisms
			3.1.4.4 Molecular Mechanism of Compatible Invasion
		3.1.5 Enhancement of Host Immunity by Copidosoma floridanum
	3.2 Physiological Interactions Between Parasitoids and Their Hosts
		3.2.1 Developmental Synchrony with the Host
			3.2.1.1 General Description of Developmental Synchrony Between Parasitoids and Their Hosts
			3.2.1.2 Developmental Synchrony in Polyembryonic Parasitoids
		3.2.2 Hormonal Regulation of Polyembryonic Development in Copidosoma floridanum
			3.2.2.1 Role of Host Hormones in Development
			3.2.2.2 Hormonal Effects on Polyembryonic Development In Vitro
			3.2.2.3 Manipulation of Host Development
		3.2.3 Effect of Host Condition on Survival and Brood Size
	References
Chapter 4: Sociality in Polyembryonic Parasitoids
	4.1 Occurrence and Development of Precocious Larvae
		4.1.1 Polyembryonic Species with Precocious Larvae
		4.1.2 Development of Precocious Larvae
			4.1.2.1 Copidosoma floridanum
			4.1.2.2 Copidosoma koehleri
	4.2 Determination of Larval Morphs
	4.3 Role of the Precocious Larvae as a Soldier Caste
		4.3.1 Interspecific Competition Involving Copidosoma tanytmemus
		4.3.2 Interspecific Competition Involving Copidosoma floridanum
		4.3.3 Precocious Larvae as a Soldier Caste and Sex Differences in Aggressiveness in Copidosoma floridanum
		4.3.4 Inter- and Intraspecific Competition in Copidosoma bakeri
		4.3.5 Intraspecific Competition in Copidosoma koehleri
		4.3.6 Inter- and Intraspecific Competition in Copidosoma desantisi
		4.3.7 Adaptive Increase in Precocious Larvae in Copidosoma floridanum
		4.3.8 Environmental Effects on Soldier Production in Copidosoma floridanum
		4.3.9 Presence of a Humoral Toxic Factor in Copidosoma floridanum
	4.4 Sexual Conflict in Mixed-Sex Broods and Evolution of the Sterile Soldier Caste in Copidosoma floridanum
		4.4.1 Sibling Rivalry in Mixed-Sex Broods
		4.4.2 Dual Roles of Precocious Larvae in Competition
		4.4.3 Aggression Toward Closer Relatives
		4.4.4 Kin Recognition
		4.4.5 Effects of Relatedness on the Brood Size and Sex Ratio in Copidosoma koehleri
	References
Chapter 5: Ecology and Evolution of Polyembryony
	5.1 Evolutionary Development of Polyembryony
		5.1.1 Environmental Conditions Favoring the Evolution of Polyembryony in Aquatic Invertebrates
		5.1.2 Developmental Constraints Favoring the Evolution of Polyembryony in Armadillos
		5.1.3 Evolution of Polyembryony in Parasitic Insects
			5.1.3.1 Endoparasitic Life and the Evolution of Polyembryony
			5.1.3.2 Small Size and the Evolution of Polyembryony
			5.1.3.3 Koinobiont Life Cycle and the Evolution of Polyembryony
			5.1.3.4 Development of Polyembryony in Hymenoptera
			5.1.3.5 Shift to Extreme Polyembryony in the Copidosoma Lineage
	5.2 Eusociality in Polyembryonic Encyrtids
		5.2.1 Eusociality in Polyembryonic Hymenoptera
		5.2.2 Evolution of the Soldier Caste in Copidosoma floridanum
		5.2.3 Evolution of the Soldier Caste in the Genus Copidosoma
	5.3 Brood Size, Body Size, and Their Trade-Off
	5.4 Oviposition Behavior
		5.4.1 Host Handling
		5.4.2 Oviposition of Male and Female Eggs
	5.5 Sex Allocation
		5.5.1 Sex Ratio in Mixed-Sex Broods of Polyembryonic Parasitoids
		5.5.2 Local Mate Competition (LMC)
		5.5.3 Effects of Host Density and Parental Density on Brood Size and Brood Sex Ratio
	5.6 Mechanism for the Evolution of Polyembryonic Development in Insects
	References
Subject Index
Taxonomy Index