Plastics in the Aquatic Environment - Part I: Current Status and Challenges

Series Preface
Contents
Role of Environmental Science in Solving the Plastic Pollution Issue
	1 Introduction
	2 Overview of This Volume
	3 Discussion
	References
Pitfalls and Limitations in Microplastic Analyses
	1 Introduction
	2 Sampling
		2.1 Spatial and Temporal Variations in the Environment
		2.2 Sampling Devices in Different Environmental Compartments
			2.2.1 Water Sampling
			2.2.2 Sediment and Soil Sampling
			2.2.3 Air Sampling
			2.2.4 Biota Sampling
		2.3 Summary
	3 Overview and Comparison of Sample Preparation Techniques
		3.1 Complexity of Matrices
		3.2 Size Fractionation
		3.3 Density Separation
		3.4 Alternative MP Extraction Approaches
		3.5 Sample Purification
		3.6 Summary
	4 Loss of Analyte and Contamination
		4.1 Sample Loss Due to Adhesion and Static Forces
		4.2 Blanks
		4.3 Mitigation Strategies Against Contamination
	5 Analytics
		5.1 Visual Identification
		5.2 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy
		5.3 Raman Spectroscopy
		5.4 Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (Pyr-GC-MS)
		5.5 Thermal Extraction and Desorption-Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (TED-GC-MS)
		5.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy Coupled with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDX)
		5.7 Quantitative Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (1H-qNMR)
	6 Conclusion
	References
Analytical Methods for Plastic (Microplastic) Determination in Environmental Samples
	1 Introduction
	2 Description of Different Methods
		2.1 Spectroscopic Methods
		2.2 Thermo-Analytical Methods
		2.3 Other Methods
	3 Discussion
	4 Conclusion
	References
Biodegradable Plastics: End of Life Scenarios
	1 Introduction
	2 Wording
		2.1 Degradable Petroleum-Based Biopolymers
		2.2 Degradable Bio-Based Biopolymers
		2.3 Non-degradable Bio-Based Biopolymers
		2.4 Polymerblends and Copolymers
		2.5 Old and New Economy Bioplastics
		2.6 ``Drop-in´´ Bioplastics
	3 Degradation
		3.1 Primary and Ultimate Degradation
		3.2 Oxo-Degradability
		3.3 Biological Degradability
		3.4 Compostability
		3.5 Aquatic Degradability
		3.6 Degradability in Soil
		3.7 Anaerobic Digestion (Biogas Generation)
		3.8 Decomposition/Degradation in Organisms
	4 Key Factors for Biodegradation
		4.1 Microstructure of Material
		4.2 Physico-Chemical Environmental Conditions
		4.3 Microbiological Conditions
	5 Conclusions
	References
Biological and Ecological Impacts of Plastic Debris in Aquatic Ecosystems
	1 Plastic Debris in Aquatic Ecosystems: From Contamination to Pollution
	2 Effects of Plastic Debris on Individual Organisms
		2.1 Entanglement
		2.2 Ingestion of Macro-sized Plastic
		2.3 Ingestion of Micro-sized Plastic
	3 Physical, Chemical and Biological Characteristics of Microplastics
		3.1 Physical Characteristics of Microplastics: Shape and Size
		3.2 Chemical Composition of Microplastics: Polymer Type, Additives and Persistent Organic Pollutants
		3.3 Biological Aspects of Microplastics: As Habitats for Microbes Potentially Increasing the Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance
	4 Wider Ecological Effects of Plastic Debris on Assemblages and Ecosystem Functioning
		4.1 Alterations to Benthic Assemblages Due to Plastic Debris: Evidence from Manipulative Experiments
		4.2 Possible Effects of Plastic Debris on Ecosystem Processes: Nutrient Cycling and Primary Productivity
	5 Closing Remarks and Recommendations
	References
Impact of Plastic Pollution on Marine Life in the Mediterranean Sea
	1 Introduction
	2 Ingestion
		2.1 Invertebrates
		2.2 Teleosts
		2.3 Elasmobranchs
		2.4 Marine Mammals
		2.5 Sea Turtles
		2.6 Seabirds
	3 Entanglement
	4 Other Impacts
	5 Conclusions
	References
Plastic in the Aquatic Environment: Interactions with Microorganisms
	1 Introduction
	2 Plastic in Water and Microorganisms: State-of-the-Art Knowledge
		2.1 Plastic and Microorganisms in Water Bodies: Forms of Interaction
			2.1.1 Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
			2.1.2 Polyethylene (PE) and Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
			2.1.3 Polystyrene (PS)
			2.1.4 Polyurethane (PU)
			2.1.5 Acrylic
		2.2 Microorganisms and Plastics: Biofilm Communities and Biodegradation of Synthetic Polymers
	3 The Results of Studies of Plastic Colonization by Microorganisms, Obtained by Our Group
		3.1 Microplaston on Plastic Waste in Natural Reservoirs
		3.2 Microplaston in Experiments: Colonization of Synthetic Polymers in the Natural Environment
	4 Conclusions
	References
Freshwater Microplastic Pollution: The State of Knowledge and Research
	1 Global Water Quality Challenges
	2 Water Quality in the UN 2030 Agenda and Sustainable Development Goals: Relevance to Microplastics in Freshwater
	3 What Are Microplastics?
	4 Source and Pathways of Microplastics in Freshwater Environments
	5 Occurrences of Microplastics in the World´s Freshwater Resources
		5.1 Microplastics in Lakes
		5.2 Microplastics in Rivers
		5.3 Microplastics in Groundwater
		5.4 Microplastics in Drinking Water
	6 Health and Ecological Risks of Microplastics in Freshwater: How Harmful Are Microplastics?
		6.1 Ecotoxicological Effects
		6.2 Potential Human Health Risks
		6.3 Microplastics as Carriers and Sources of Other Pollutants in Freshwater
	7 Reducing Microplastic Pollution in Freshwater Environments
	8 Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs on Microplastics in Freshwater Environments
	References
From Land to Sea: Model for the Documentation of Land-Sourced Plastic Litter
	1 Global Challenge
	2 Background/Motivation
	3 Plastic Waste in Germany
	4 Improperly Disposed-of Plastics and Littering in Germany
	5 Subject of the Investigation of the Model
	6 Methodology of the Model
	7 Assumptions Made in the Model
	8 Overview of the Discharge Pathways
	9 Special Report: Compost and Digestate
	10 Special Report: Littering
	11 Data Basis
	12 Limitations of the Model
	13 Main Results
	14 Conclusions
	References
Plastic Waste Management: Current Status and Weaknesses
	1 Introduction
	2 Waste Management in Developed Countries
		2.1 Collection
		2.2 Sorting
		2.3 Treatment
	3 Waste Management in Developing Countries
		3.1 Latin America
		3.2 Asia
		3.3 Africa
	4 Circular Economy and Weaknesses
	5 Conclusion
	References
Plastic Pollution in Slovenia: From Plastic Waste Management to Research on Microplastics
	1 Introduction
		1.1 A Brief History of (Plastic) Waste
		1.2 From Macroplastics to Microplastics
	2 Plastics and Slovenia
		2.1 Waste and Plastic Waste Generation
		2.2 Plastic Waste Management
	3 Plastics and Microplastics Research in Slovenia
	4 Conclusions
	References
Marine Litter Assessment on Some Beaches Along the Southeastern Adriatic Coastline (Albania)
	1 Introduction
	2 Materials and Methods
		2.1 Study Area
		2.2 Methods
		2.3 Data Analysis and Processing
	3 Results and Discussion
		3.1 Litter Densities of Surveyed Beaches and Beach Cleanliness
		3.2 Marine Litter Composition of Surveyed Beaches
		3.3 Marine Litter Sources of Surveyed Beaches
		3.4 Options to Manage the Litter of Beaches
	4 Conclusions
	References
Plastic Pollution in East Asia: Macroplastics and Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment and Mitigation Efforts by Various A...
	1 Introduction
	2 Methods
	3 Results
		3.1 China
			3.1.1 Macro- and Microplastic Contamination of the Aquatic Environment
			3.1.2 Mitigation Efforts to Decrease the Plastic Pollution
		3.2 Japan
			3.2.1 Macro- and Microplastic Contamination of the Aquatic Environment
			3.2.2 Mitigation Efforts to Decrease the Plastic Pollution
		3.3 South Korea
			3.3.1 Macro- and Microplastic Contamination of the Aquatic Environment
			3.3.2 Mitigation Efforts to Decrease the Plastic Pollution
		3.4 Taiwan
			3.4.1 Macro- and Microplastic Contamination of the Aquatic Environment
			3.4.2 Mitigation Efforts to Decrease the Plastic Pollution
	4 Discussion and Conclusion
	References
The Microplastics in Metro Manila Rivers: Characteristics, Sources, and Abatement
	1 Introduction
	2 Microplastics in Metro Manila Rivers
		2.1 Study Area
		2.2 Abundance of Microplastics in Surface Waters and Sediments
		2.3 Characteristics and Possible Sources of the Microplastics
	3 Solid Waste Management Regulatory Framework
		3.1 Republic Act 9003: The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
		3.2 Local Ordinances
		3.3 Regulations on Incineration and Open Burning
	4 Solid Waste Management in Metro Manila
		4.1 Generation
		4.2 Segregation at Source
		4.3 Collection
		4.4 Recycling and Diversion Activities
		4.5 Disposal
	5 Moving Forward to Prevent Plastic Pollution
	References
Plastic Contamination in Brazilian Freshwater and Coastal Environments: A Source-to-Sea Transboundary Approach
	1 Introduction
	2 Materials and Methods
	3 Results
		3.1 Sources of Plastic Debris
			3.1.1 Sources of Plastic Debris in Freshwater Systems
			3.1.2 Sources of Plastic Debris in Estuarine Systems
		3.2 Composition and Spatial Distribution of Macroplastics
			3.2.1 Patterns of Macroplastic Contamination in Freshwater Systems
			3.2.2 Patterns of Macroplastic Contamination in the Water Column of Estuarine Systems
			3.2.3 Patterns of Macroplastic Contamination in Mangrove Areas
			3.2.4 Patterns of Macroplastic Contamination on Estuarine Beaches
		3.3 Composition and Spatial Distribution of Microplastics
			3.3.1 Patterns of Microplastic Contamination in Freshwater Systems
			3.3.2 Patterns of Microplastic Contamination in the Water Column of Estuarine Systems
			3.3.3 Patterns of Microplastic Contamination in Estuarine Sediments
		3.4 Interaction Between Plastic Debris and Biota in Freshwater and Estuarine Ecosystems
			3.4.1 Interaction Between Plastic Debris and Benthos of Freshwater Systems
			3.4.2 Ingestion of Plastic Debris by Mammals, Reptiles and Molluscs in Estuarine Systems
			3.4.3 Ingestion of Plastic Debris by Fishes in Estuarine Systems
	4 Discussion
		4.1 Contributions, Lessons Learned and Knowledge Gaps Regarding Plastic Pollution in Brazilian Riverine and Coastal Environmen...
		4.2 Conventions and Regulations Regarding Plastic Pollution in Brazilian Riverine and Coastal Environments
		4.3 Problems Still Needing Attention and Recommendations
	5 Conclusion
	References
Marine Litter in the Russian Gulf of Finland and South-East Baltic: Application of Different Methods of Beach Sand Sampling
	1 Introduction
	2 Marine Litter Study in the Eastern Part of the Gulf of Finland
		2.1 Study Area: Neva River Inner Estuary and Outer Part of the Gulf
		2.2 Monitoring Methods for Litter on Sandy Beaches
		2.3 Marine Litter in the Eastern Part of the Gulf of Finland: Results and Discussion
	3 South-East Baltic: Kaliningrad Region
		3.1 Studies of Beached Marine Litter by Various Methods
			3.1.1 Beaches of the Curonian Spit National Park
			3.1.2 Beach Sediment Studies
		3.2 Specific Pollutants: Geosynthetics, Paraffin, Foamed PS
		3.3 Three-Dimensional Distribution of Marine Microlitter in the Sand Body of the Beach
	4 Conclusions
	References
Role of Environmental Science in Tackling Plastic Pollution
	1 Introduction
	2 Overview of This Volume
	3 Discussion
	References