Plastic Surgery: An Illustrated History

Foreword
Preface
Introduction
	Reference
Contents
About the Authors
1: The Ancient World
	1.1	 The Remote Origins of Plastic Surgery
	1.2	 Mesopotamia
		1.2.1	 The Clay Tablets
		1.2.2	 The Code of Hammurabi
	1.3	 Ancient Egypt
		1.3.1	 The Smith Papyrus
	1.4	 India
		1.4.1	 The Shamita
		1.4.2	 The Forehead Flap for Nasal Reconstruction
	1.5	 Greece
		1.5.1	 Hippocrates
		1.5.2	 The Corpus Hippocraticum
	1.6	 The Medical School of Alexandria
	1.7	 Rome
		1.7.1	 Celsus
		1.7.2	 Galen
	1.8	 Plastic Surgery After the Downfall of the Roman Empire: The Byzantine Period
		1.8.1	 Oribasius
		1.8.2	 Aëtius
		1.8.3	 Paulus
	References
2: The Middle Ages
	2.1	 Arabian Surgery
		2.1.1	 Albucasis
	2.2	 The School of Salerno
		2.2.1	 Trotula
		2.2.2	 Roger
		2.2.3	 Roland
		2.2.4	 Regimen Sanitatis
	2.3	 The Founding of Universities
	2.4	 Surgery in the Middle Ages
		2.4.1	 The Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries: The Founding of the Studium of Bologna
			2.4.1.1	 Hugh of Lucca and Theodoric Borgognoni
			2.4.1.2	 Guglielmo da Saliceto
			2.4.1.3	 Lanfranco
			2.4.1.4	 Henri de Mondeville
			2.4.1.5	 Guy de Chauliac
			2.4.1.6	 Jehan Yperman
			2.4.1.7	 John of Arderne
		2.4.2	 The Fifteenth Century and the First Half of the Sixteenth Century
			2.4.2.1	 Surgery in Bologna
				Petrus de Argellata
			2.4.2.2	 Surgery in Germany
				Heinrich von Pfolfprundt
				Hyeronimus Brunschwig
				Hans von Gersdorff
				Walther Hermann Ryff
	2.5	 The Invention and Spread of Printing and Its Impact on Culture: Venice, the Center of the Publishing Industry
		2.5.1	 Johannes Gutenberg
		2.5.2	 The Development of Printing
		2.5.3	 Venice: Capital of the Printing Industry
			2.5.3.1	 Aldo: One of the Most Renowned Printing Houses in Venice
			2.5.3.2	 Scoto: A Very Active Venetian Printing House
			2.5.3.3	 Gregorius de’ Gregoriis: An Exclusive Printing House
	References
3: The Renaissance
	3.1	 Medicine and Surgery in the Sixteenth Century
		3.1.1	 Epidemic Diseases
		3.1.2	 Treatment of Gunshot Wounds
			3.1.2.1	 Giovanni da Vigo
			3.1.2.2	 Alfonso Ferri
			3.1.2.3	 Ambroise Paré
			3.1.2.4	 Bartolomeo Maggi
			3.1.2.5	 Leonardo Botallo
			3.1.2.6	 Laurent Joubert
		3.1.3	 Treatment of Head Wounds
			3.1.3.1	 Jacopo Berengario da Carpi
			3.1.3.2	 Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia
			3.1.3.3	 Ambroise Paré
			3.1.3.4	 Gabriele Fallopio
			3.1.3.5	 Giovanni Andrea dalla Croce
			3.1.3.6	 Giovanni Battista Carcano Leone
		3.1.4	 Treatment of Wounds, Facial Wounds, Fractures, and Luxations and General Surgery
			3.1.4.1	 Paracelsus
			3.1.4.2	 Jean Tagault
			3.1.4.3	 Guido Guidi
			3.1.4.4	 Caspar Stromayr
		3.1.5	 Eye Surgery
			3.1.5.1	 Georg Bartisch
	3.2	 Three Leading French Surgeons
		3.2.1	 Pierre Franco
		3.2.2	 Ambroise Paré
			3.2.2.1	 War: A Crucial Factor in the Development and Spread of Paré’s Ideas
			3.2.2.2	 Paré and Anatomy
			3.2.2.3	 Paré’s Works
			3.2.2.4	 Paré’s Contribution to Plastic Surgery
		3.2.3	 Jacques Guillemeau
	3.3	 The Nose Saga
		3.3.1	 Sicily
			3.3.1.1	 Gustavo Branca
			3.3.1.2	 Antonio Branca
			3.3.1.3	 Pietro Ranzano
			3.3.1.4	 Elisio Calenzio
			3.3.1.5	 Bartolomeo Facius
			3.3.1.6	 Alessandro Benedetti
		3.3.2	 Calabria
			3.3.2.1	 The Vianeo Family
			3.3.2.2	 Contemporaries’ Reports on the Vianeos
				Camillo Porzio
				Leonardo Fioravanti
				Tommaso Campanella
		3.3.3	 Padua
			3.3.3.1	 Prospero Borgarucci
			3.3.3.2	 Andreas Vesalius
		3.3.4	 Lausanne
			3.3.4.1	 Jean Griffon
			3.3.4.2	 Fabry von Hilden
		3.3.5	 Bologna
			3.3.5.1	 Giulio Cesare Aranzio
			3.3.5.2	 Gaspare Tagliacozzi
	References
4: The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: The Decline of Plastic Surgery in the Western World
	4.1	 The Decline in the Seventeenth Century
		4.1.1	 Constitution of Learned Societies
		4.1.2	 Tagliacozzi’s Legacy
			4.1.2.1	 Giovanni Battista Cortesi
			4.1.2.2	 Thomas Feyens
			4.1.2.3	 Fortunio Liceto
			4.1.2.4	 Antonio Molinetti
			4.1.2.5	 Giovanni Tommaso Minadoi
			4.1.2.6	 Johannes Schenck von Grafenberg
			4.1.2.7	 Jean Vigier
			4.1.2.8	 J. Baptista van Lamzweerde
			4.1.2.9	 Mattheus Purmann
			4.1.2.10	 Johannes Munnicks
		4.1.3	 Tagliacozzi’s Detractors: The Sympathetic Slave and the Powder of Sympathy
			4.1.3.1	 Jean Baptiste van Helmont
			4.1.3.2	 Athanasius Kircher
			4.1.3.3	 Carlo Musitano
			4.1.3.4	 Sir Kenelm Digby
			4.1.3.5	 Samuel Butler
			4.1.3.6	 Voltaire
		4.1.4	 The Role of the Periosteum in Bone Production: The Origin of Bone Graft
			4.1.4.1	 Job Janszoon van Meekeren
		4.1.5	 The Progress of General Surgery: Italy
			4.1.5.1	 Hyeronimus Fabricius ab Aquapendente
			4.1.5.2	 Giulio Casserio
			4.1.5.3	 Cesare Magati
			4.1.5.4	 Auguste Belloste
			4.1.5.5	 Marco Aurelio Severino
			4.1.5.6	 Filippo Masiero
			4.1.5.7	 Antonio Filippo Ciucci
		4.1.6	 The Progress of General Surgery: Germany
			4.1.6.1	 W. Fabry von Hilden
			4.1.6.2	 Johannes Schultes
		4.1.7	 Intravenous Injection of Drugs or Chirurgia Infusoria. Blood Transfusion Possible, or Chirurgia Transfusoria
			4.1.7.1	 Blood Transfusion in Animals
			4.1.7.2	 Blood Transfusion in Man
				France
				Germany
				Italy
			4.1.7.3	 The Drama
			4.1.7.4	 Blood Transfusion Forbidden
			4.1.7.5	 Blood Transfusion Resumed
	4.2	 The Eighteenth Century
		4.2.1	 Tagliacozzi’s Influence
			4.2.1.1	 Tagliacozzi’s De Curtorum Chirurgia Reissued
		4.2.2	 Surgical Achievements in Europe
			4.2.2.1	 France
				Pierre Dionis
				The Académie Royale de Chirurgie
				René Jacques Croissant de Garengeot
				Jean Louis Petit
				Dionis Georges de la Faye
				Henry-François Le Dran
				Sauveur François Morand
				Pierre-Joseph Desault
			4.2.2.2	 England
				William Cheselden
				Samuel Sharp
				Benjamin Bell
			4.2.2.3	 Germany
				Johann Zacharian Platner
				Lorenz Heister
			4.2.2.4	 Austria
				Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla
			4.2.2.5	 Italy
	References
5: The Nineteenth Century: The Rebirth of Plastic Surgery in the Western World
	5.1	 The Impact of The Gentleman’s Magazine on the Resurrection of Plastic Surgery: Joseph C. Carpue
	5.2	 The Golden Age of Plastic Surgery
		5.2.1	 Germany
			5.2.1.1	 Carl Ferdinand von Gräfe
			5.2.1.2	 Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach
			5.2.1.3	 Eduard Zeis
			5.2.1.4	 Friedrich August von Ammon
			5.2.1.5	 Hermann Eduard Fritze and Otto Friedrich G. Reich
			5.2.1.6	 Ernst C. Friedrich Blasius
			5.2.1.7	 Hermann Friedberg
			5.2.1.8	 Karl Heinrich August von Burow
			5.2.1.9	 Victor von Bruns
			5.2.1.10	 Bernhard Rudolph Conrad von Langenbeck
			5.2.1.11	 Johann Friedrich August von Esmarch
			5.2.1.12	 Christian Albert Theodor Billroth
		5.2.2	 France
			5.2.2.1	 Dominique-Jean Larrey
			5.2.2.2	 Jacques Mathieu Delpech
			5.2.2.3	 Pierre Léon Auguste Labat
			5.2.2.4	 Baron Guillaume Dupuytren
			5.2.2.5	 Alfred Armand Louis Marie Velpeau
			5.2.2.6	 Philippe Frédéric Blandin
			5.2.2.7	 Joseph-François Malgaigne
			5.2.2.8	 Charles-Pierre Denonvilliers
			5.2.2.9	 Auguste Nélaton
			5.2.2.10	 Michel Serre
			5.2.2.11	 Antoine-Joseph Jobert de Lamballe
			5.2.2.12	 Philibert Joseph Roux
			5.2.2.13	 Aristide Auguste Stanislas Verneuil
			5.2.2.14	 Claude Bernard
		5.2.3	 Italy
			5.2.3.1	 Paolo Assalini
			5.2.3.2	 Antonio Scarpa
			5.2.3.3	 Luigi Porta
			5.2.3.4	 Angelo Scarenzio
			5.2.3.5	 Alessandro Riberi
			5.2.3.6	 Bartolomeo Signoroni
			5.2.3.7	 Francesco Marzolo
			5.2.3.8	 Pietro Sabattini
			5.2.3.9	 Costanzo Mazzoni
			5.2.3.10	 Paolo Baroni
			5.2.3.11	 Paolo Fabrizi
		5.2.4	 England
			5.2.4.1	 Charles Bell
			5.2.4.2	 Astley Paston Cooper
			5.2.4.3	 Francis Mason
		5.2.5	 Hungary
		5.2.6	 Russia and Ukraine
			5.2.6.1	 Nikolay Pirogov
			5.2.6.2	 Julius von Szymanowski
		5.2.7	 Finland
		5.2.8	 United States
			5.2.8.1	 John Peter Mettauer
			5.2.8.2	 Thomas Dent Mütter
			5.2.8.3	 Joseph Pancoast
			5.2.8.4	 David Prince
			5.2.8.5	 Gurdon Buck
			5.2.8.6	 Jonathan Mason Warren
			5.2.8.7	 George Howard Monks
	5.3	 The Origins of Free Skin Grafts: Development and Applications
		5.3.1	 Giuseppe Baronio
		5.3.2	 Christian H. Bünger
		5.3.3	 Paul Bert
		5.3.4	 Jacques Louis Reverdin
		5.3.5	 George Lawson
		5.3.6	 John Reissberg Wolfe
		5.3.7	 Fedor Krause
		5.3.8	 Louis Xavier Édouard Léopold Ollier
		5.3.9	 Carl Thiersch
	5.4	 The Role of the Periosteum. The Axiom: Periosteum Forms Bone
		5.4.1	 Henri L. Duhamel de Monceau
		5.4.2	 Michael Troja
		5.4.3	 Barthélémy Vigarous
		5.4.4	 Marie Pierre Flourens
		5.4.5	 Louis Xavier Édouard Léopold Ollier
	5.5	 Evolution of Modern Surgery: Two Crucial Discoveries
		5.5.1	 Anesthesia
			5.5.1.1	 Gardner Quincy Colton
			5.5.1.2	 William Thomas Green Morton
			5.5.1.3	 John Collins Warren
			5.5.1.4	 Robert Liston
		5.5.2	 Antisepsis
			5.5.2.1	 Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch
			5.5.2.2	 Ignaz P. Semmelweis
			5.5.2.3	 Joseph Lister
	References
6: The Birth of Modern Plastic Surgery
	6.1	 The Twentieth Century
		6.1.1	 Skin Flaps
			6.1.1.1	 Cutaneous Flaps
			6.1.1.2	 Cutaneous Vascularization
				Carl Manchot
				Michel Salmon
			6.1.1.3	 Arterial Flaps
			6.1.1.4	 Musculocutaneous Flaps
		6.1.2	 Skin Grafts
		6.1.3	 Grafting of Tissues Other Than Skin
			6.1.3.1	 Bone Grafting
				van Meekeren
				Louis Xavier Édouard Léopold Ollier
				Arthur Barth
				Georg Axhausen
				Dallas B. Phemister
				Fred H. Albee
			6.1.3.2	 Cartilage Grafting
				Wilhelm Zahn
				E. Fischer
				Friedrich von Mangoldt
			6.1.3.3	 Fat Grafting
				Gustav Neuber
				Viktor Czerny
				Erich Lexer
				Hippolyte Morestin
				Harold Gillies
			6.1.3.4	 Fat Injection
				Eugene Holländer
				Charles C. Miller
			6.1.3.5	 Fat Grafting, Current Application
	6.2	 Plastic Surgery and WWI
		6.2.1	 France
			6.2.1.1	 Hippolyte Morestin
			6.2.1.2	 Léon Dufourmentel
			6.2.1.3	 Maurice Virenque
			6.2.1.4	 Albéric Pont
		6.2.2	 England
		6.2.3	 Germany
			6.2.3.1	 Erich Lexer
			6.2.3.2	 Jacques Joseph
		6.2.4	 The Netherlands
		6.2.5	 Belgium
		6.2.6	 Italy
		6.2.7	 Czechoslovakia
		6.2.8	 Hungary
			6.2.8.1	 Johann von Ertl
			6.2.8.2	 Josef Imre, Junior
		6.2.9	 Spain
		6.2.10	 Sweden
		6.2.11	 The USA
			6.2.11.1	 John Staige Davis
			6.2.11.2	 Vilray Blair
			6.2.11.3	 Joseph Eastman Sheehan
			6.2.11.4	 Ferris Nicholas Smith
			6.2.11.5	 Varaztad H. Kazanjian
			6.2.11.6	 Jerome P. Webster
	6.3	 Official Recognition of Plastic Surgery
		6.3.1	 The Training Programs
			6.3.1.1	 England
			6.3.1.2	 France
			6.3.1.3	 The USA
		6.3.2	 The Origin of the Scientific Societies
		6.3.3	 The Scientific Journals
	6.4	 Conclusions
	References
7: The Birth of Aesthetic Surgery
	7.1	 The Remote Origins of Aesthetic Surgery
		7.1.1	 Eyelid Anomalies
			7.1.1.1	 Aulus Cornelius Celsus
			7.1.1.2	 Georg Bartisch
			7.1.1.3	 Lorenz Heister
			7.1.1.4	 Pierre Dionis
			7.1.1.5	 George Joseph Beer
		7.1.2	 Breast Deformities
			7.1.2.1	 Paulus of Aegina
			7.1.2.2	 Abu-l-Qa-Sim (Albucasis)
			7.1.2.3	 Giovanni Tommaso Minadoi
			7.1.2.4	 Giovanni Marinello
			7.1.2.5	 Will Durston
		7.1.3	 Women in Medicine
			7.1.3.1	 Trotula
		7.1.4	 Opposition to Aesthetic Changes
	7.2	 The Beginning of Modern Aesthetic Surgery
		7.2.1	 Early Procedures
		7.2.2	 The First Purely Aesthetic Procedure: Correction of Prominent Ears
		7.2.3	 Rhinoplasty
			7.2.3.1	 The Beginning of Aesthetic Rhinoplasty: End of the Nineteenth Century. An American Story
				John Orlando Roe
				Robert Weir
				George Monks
			7.2.3.2	 Aesthetic Rhinoplasty Takes Shape: Jacques Joseph
			7.2.3.3	 Textbooks on Aesthetic Rhinoplasty in the Interwar Period
				Joseph Eastman Sheehan
				Sebileau and Dufourmentel
				Julien Bourguet
				Gustavo Sanvenero-Rosselli
				Joseph Safian
			7.2.3.4	 The Open Approach
			7.2.3.5	 Augmentation Rhinoplasty
				James Hardie
				James Israel
				Friedrich von Mangoldt
				Robert Weir
			7.2.3.6	 Paraffin Implants
	7.3	 Breast Surgery
		7.3.1	 Reduction Mammoplasty
			7.3.1.1	 Michel Pousson
			7.3.1.2	 F. Verchère
		7.3.2	 Suspension of the Gland
			7.3.2.1	 J. Dehner
			7.3.2.2	 C. Girard
			7.3.2.3	 R. Göbell
			7.3.2.4	 Aimé Guinard
			7.3.2.5	 Hippolyte Morestin
			7.3.2.6	 Theodore Gaillard Thomas
		7.3.3	 Nipple Management: Free Grafting Vs. Transposition
			7.3.3.1	 Free Nipple Grafting
				Erich Lexer
				Max Thorek
			7.3.3.2	 Nipple Transposition
				Erich Lexer
				V. Aubert
				H. Kraske
				Raymond Passot
				Louis Dartigues
				F. Lötsch
				Jacques Joseph
				Hermann Biesenberger
				Emil Schwarzmann
				Ernst Eitner
		7.3.4	 Augmentation Mammoplasty
			7.3.4.1	 Fat Grafting
				Viktor Czerny
				Erich Lexer
				L. Wrede
				Raymond Passot
			7.3.4.2	 Fat Injection
				Eugene Holländer
			7.3.4.3	 Omentum Grafting
				Raymond Passot
			7.3.4.4	 Implants
				Emil Schwarzmann
				Robert Gersuny
			7.3.4.5	 Surgical Treatment
				Erna Gläsmer
		7.3.5	 The Beginning of Breast Reconstruction
			7.3.5.1	 Viktor Czerny
			7.3.5.2	 L. Wrede
			7.3.5.3	 Eugene Holländer
			7.3.5.4	 Sir Harold D. Gillies
			7.3.5.5	 William Stewart Halsted
			7.3.5.6	 Iginio Tansini
			7.3.5.7	 Louis Ombrédanne
			7.3.5.8	 Ernst Ferdinand Sauerbruch
			7.3.5.9	 David Patey
	7.4	 Abdominoplasty
		7.4.1	 Howard A. Kelly
		7.4.2	 F. Gaudet and H. Morestin
		7.4.3	 S. Weinhold
		7.4.4	 Amédée Morestin
		7.4.5	 W. Babcock
		7.4.6	 E. Schepelmann
		7.4.7	 H. Küster
		7.4.8	 Max Thorek
		7.4.9	 Ernst Eitner
	7.5	 Brachioplasty
		7.5.1	 Suzanne Noël
		7.5.2	 Max Thorek
		7.5.3	 Jacques Joseph
		7.5.4	 Raymond Passot
	7.6	 Facial Rejuvenation
		7.6.1	 Non-invasive Procedures
			7.6.1.1	 Use of Cosmetics: A Historical Overview
		7.6.2	 Minimally Invasive Procedures
			7.6.2.1	 Chemical Peeling and Dermabrasion
			7.6.2.2	 Fillers
				Paraffin
				Other Fillers: Gutta-Percha and Celluloid
				Liquid Silicone
				Fat
		7.6.3	 Invasive Procedures
			7.6.3.1	 Facelifting
				Eugene Holländer
				Charles C. Miller
				Frederick S. Kolle
			7.6.3.2	 Facial Rejuvenation in the Interwar Period
		7.6.4	 Development of Facial Rejuvenation Techniques in the USA
			7.6.4.1	 Adalbert G. Bettman
			7.6.4.2	 Lyons H. Hunt
			7.6.4.3	 J. Howard Crum
			7.6.4.4	 Henry J. Schireson
			7.6.4.5	 Joseph Eastman Sheehan
			7.6.4.6	 Jacques W. Maliniak
			7.6.4.7	 Maxwell Maltz
		7.6.5	 Development of Facelifting Techniques in Europe
			7.6.5.1	 France
				Suzanne Noël
				Raymond Passot
				Julien Bourguet
				Maurice Virenque
			7.6.5.2	 Germany and Austria
	7.7	 Blepharoplasty
		7.7.1	 The Development of Cosmetic Eyelid Surgery
			7.7.1.1	 Development of Blepharoplasty in the USA
			7.7.1.2	 Development of Blepharoplasty in Europe
				Suzanne Noël
				Julien Bourguet
				Raymond Passot
				Jacques Joseph
				Ernst Eitner
	7.8	 Otoplasty
		7.8.1	 Reconstructive Otoplasty for Traumas
		7.8.2	 Reconstructive Otoplasty for Congenital Malformations
		7.8.3	 Cosmetic Otoplasty
		7.8.4	 Correction of Prominent Ears in the USA
		7.8.5	 Correction of Prominent Ears and Aesthetic Otoplasty in Countries Other than the USA
	7.9	 Conclusions
	References
8: The Impact of Anatomy on the Evolution of Surgery
	8.1	 The Relationship Between Anatomy and Surgery
	8.2	 The Remote Origins of Anatomy
		8.2.1	 Greek Anatomy
		8.2.2	 The Medical School of Alexandria
		8.2.3	 Roman Anatomy
		8.2.4	 Arabic Domination
		8.2.5	 The Medical School of Salerno
		8.2.6	 Translation of Medical Texts
	8.3	 The Rise of the Universities: Bologna University and the Teaching of Anatomy
		8.3.1	 Mondino de’ Luzzi: The Formal Organization of Cadaveric Dissections
		8.3.2	 Official Recognition of Dissections in Bologna
		8.3.3	 Mondino’s Successors and Disciples
		8.3.4	 Guido da Vigevano
	8.4	 From the Middle Ages to the Renaissance
		8.4.1	 Anatomy and the Arts
			8.4.1.1	 Leonardo da Vinci
			8.4.1.2	 Albrecht Dürer
		8.4.2	 The Beginning of Anatomical Illustration
			8.4.2.1	 From Diagrams to Anatomical Illustration: From Woodcuts to Engraving
		8.4.3	 Pre-Vesalian Anatomy
			8.4.3.1	 Jacopo Barigazzi (Berengario da Carpi)
			8.4.3.2	 Johannes Dryander
			8.4.3.3	 Charles Estienne
		8.4.4	 The Revolution in Anatomy
			8.4.4.1	 Andreas Vesalius
			8.4.4.2	 Thomas Geminus: Vesalius’ Illustrations Plagiarized
	8.5	 The Anatomical School of Padua in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
		8.5.1	 Realdo Colombo
		8.5.2	 Gabriele Falloppio
		8.5.3	 Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente
		8.5.4	 Giulio Casserio
		8.5.5	 Adrian Van der Spieghel
		8.5.6	 Johannes Vesling
	8.6	 Anatomy in Rome in the Sixteenth Century
		8.6.1	 Bartolomeo Eustachio
		8.6.2	 Juan Valverde de Hamusco
	8.7	 Anatomy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
		8.7.1	 Switzerland
			8.7.1.1	 Caspar Bauhin
			8.7.1.2	 Albrecht von Haller
		8.7.2	 Denmark and Sweden
			8.7.2.1	 Caspar Bartholin
			8.7.2.2	 Thomas Bartholin
			8.7.2.3	 Olof Rudbeck
		8.7.3	 The Netherlands
			8.7.3.1	 Leiden
				Pieter Paaw
				Thomas Theodor Kerckring
				Govard Bidloo
				Bernhard Siegfried Albinus
			8.7.3.2	 Amsterdam
				Frederik Ruysch
		8.7.4	 Italy
			8.7.4.1	 Rome
				Pietro Berrettini
				Bernardino Genga
			8.7.4.2	 Milan
				Gaspare Aselli
			8.7.4.3	 Bologna
				Antonio Maria Valsalva
				Ercole Lelli
				Anna Morandi
			8.7.4.4	 Venice
				Giovanni Domenico Santorini
			8.7.4.5	 Grand Duchy of Tuscany
				The Wax Modelers of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany
				Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
				Paolo Mascagni
			8.7.4.6	 Pavia
				Antonio Scarpa
		8.7.5	 Germany
			8.7.5.1	 Johann Remmelin
			8.7.5.2	 Johann Gottfried Zinn
			8.7.5.3	 Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring
		8.7.6	 France
			8.7.6.1	 René Descartes
			8.7.6.2	 Guichard Joseph Duverney
			8.7.6.3	 Jacques Bénigne Winslow
			8.7.6.4	 Color Printing: The Gautier Family and the Mezzotint Technique
				Jacques Fabien Gautier d’Agoty
				Arnauld Éloi Gautier d’Agoty
				Felix Vicq d’Azyr: Another Form of Color Printing—The Aquatint Method
			8.7.6.5	 Jacques Gamelin
		8.7.7	 England
			8.7.7.1	 William Harvey
			8.7.7.2	 Nathaniel Highmore
			8.7.7.3	 Thomas Willis
			8.7.7.4	 William Cowper
			8.7.7.5	 William Cheselden
			8.7.7.6	 John Bell
	8.8	 Anatomy in the Nineteenth Century
		8.8.1	 France
			8.8.1.1	 Marie François Xavier Bichat
			8.8.1.2	 Jules Germain Cloquet
			8.8.1.3	 Jean-Baptiste M. Bourgery
			8.8.1.4	 Topographic Anatomy: Another Way to Teach Anatomy
				Philippe Frédéric Blandin
			8.8.1.5	 Marie Philibert Constant Sappey
		8.8.2	 England
			8.8.2.1	 Charles Bell
			8.8.2.2	 John Lizars
			8.8.2.3	 Joseph Swan
			8.8.2.4	 Astley Paston Cooper
			8.8.2.5	 Joseph Maclise
	8.9	 Anatomy in the Modern Period
		8.9.1	 Carl Manchot
		8.9.2	 Giuseppe Sterzi
	8.10	 Conclusions
	References
9: Cleft Lip and Palate
	9.1	 Cleft Lip Repair
		9.1.1	 Before the Fourteenth Century
		9.1.2	 From the Middle Ages to the Renaissance
			9.1.2.1	 Jehan Yperman
			9.1.2.2	 Heinrich von Pfolfprundt
			9.1.2.3	Hyeronimus Brunschwig
			9.1.2.4	 Pierre Franco
			9.1.2.5	 Ambroise Paré
			9.1.2.6	 Jacques Guillemeau
			9.1.2.7	 Gaspare Tagliacozzi
		9.1.3	 In the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
			9.1.3.1	 Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente
			9.1.3.2	 Johannes Schultes (Scultetus)
			9.1.3.3	 Pierre Dionis
			9.1.3.4	 René Jacques Croissant de Garengeot
			9.1.3.5	 Georges de La Faye
			9.1.3.6	 Lorenz Heister
			9.1.3.7	 William Cheselden
			9.1.3.8	 Giuseppe M. Brunazzi
			9.1.3.9	 Giuseppe Sonsis
		9.1.4	 In the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
			9.1.4.1	 Joseph-François Malgaigne
			9.1.4.2	 Germanicus Mirault
			9.1.4.3	 Werner H. Hagedorn
	9.2	 Palate Anatomy and Cleft Palate Repair
		9.2.1	 Anatomy
			9.2.1.1	 Leonardo da Vinci
			9.2.1.2	 Johannes Dryander
			9.2.1.3	 Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente
			9.2.1.4	 Antonio Maria Valsalva
			9.2.1.5	 David Cornelius de Courcelles
			9.2.1.6	 Jacques Fabien Gautier d’Agoty
			9.2.1.7	 Wolfgang von Kempelen
		9.2.2	 Surgery
			9.2.2.1	 Management of Cleft Palate Before the Sixteenth Century
				Ambroise Paré
				Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente
			9.2.2.2	 First Cleft Palate Closure in the Second Decade of the Nineteenth Century by Carl Ferdinand von Gräfe and Philibert Joseph Roux
			9.2.2.3	 Cleft Palate Surgery Spreads Rapidly
				Johannes Dieffenbach
				Treatment of Cleft Palate in America and in England
				Bernhard von Langenbeck
				Victor Veau
	9.3	 Velopharyngeal Insufficiency
		9.3.1	 Posterior Extension of the Soft Palate
		9.3.2	 Velopharyngeal Synechia: Push Back—Velopharyngoplasties
		9.3.3	 Advancement of the Posterior Pharyngeal Wall
	9.4	 Speech Rehabilitation: The Team Approach
	References
10: Conclusions
	References
Index