Plant Development and Evolution

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Contributors
Preface
Evolution of the plant body plan
	The significance of land plants
	Understanding evolution of the plant body plan
	Phylogenetic relationships of land plants and evolution of the land plant body plan
	Developmental patterns predating the origin of land plants
	Developmental innovations of land plants
		Alternation of haploid (gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) generations
		Evolution of three-dimensional growth in the haploid and diploid phases
		Origin of spores, sporangia, and sporopollenin in land plants
		Origin of unbranched sporophyte forms
		Evolution of bifurcating axes
		Evolution of indeterminacy
		Evolution of meristems
		Origin of leaves
		Evolution of rooting systems
		Roots
	Conclusions and perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
Evolution and co-option of developmental regulatory networks in early land plants
	The algal origin of land plants
	Early land plants
		Cryptospores and cryptophytes
		Macrofossil record
	The ancestral land plant
	Co-option and novelty in developmental innovation
		Of rhizoids and root hairs
		The shoot apical meristem
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
The role of plant root systems in evolutionary adaptation
	Introduction
	Roots, root systems, and root biotic colonization
		What is a root?
		Lateral and adventitious roots
		Tap roots, fibrous roots, and root system architecture
		Rhizomes and rhizoids
		Mycorrhizae and Rhizobia
	From first roots to angiosperm root diversity
		Devonian rooting structures
		Paraphyletic origin of true roots
		The oldest root meristem
		Angiosperm root system plasticity
			Monocots
			Dicots
	Geochemical consequences of root evolution
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Patterning at the shoot apical meristem and phyllotaxis
	Introduction
	Development of the shoot apical meristem
		A brief overview of the organization and genetic regulation of shoot apical meristem activity
		Hormonal regulation of stem cell activity
		Feedback from differentiated cells
	A few words on the history of phyllotaxis research: The development of the inhibitory field concept
	Phyllotaxis and chemical signals
		Coordinated polar auxin transport: Tissue level auxin distribution allowing for self-organizing organ initiation
		Auxin signaling: Downstream regulation of auxin distribution
		Regulation of auxin biosynthesis: Upstream regulation of auxin distribution
		Cytokinin: A secondary inhibitory field acting on the plastochrone
	Mechanical signals: How does physics affect phyllotaxis?
	The SAM geometry: Phyllotaxis diversity
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Leaf development and evolution
	Introduction
	Leaf initiation and marginal patterning
		Leaf initiation
		Establishment of the leaf blade and margin
		Molecular regulation of the margin
	Background leaf growth and cellular behavior during leaf development
		Distribution of leaf growth: Models and measurements
		Cellular parameters of leaf growth
		Cell proliferation and leaf size
		Timing of differentiation and leaf shape
	The genetic basis for the evolution of leaf shape
		Macroevolutionary changes
		Microevolutionary changes, heterochrony, and heterophylly
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Vascular tissue development in plants
	Introduction
	Initiation of vascular system development
		Organization of vascular cells in the embryo
		Pattern formation in vascular tissues
	Maintenance of vascular stem cells
	Xylem cell differentiation
		Establishment of xylem cell fate
		Determination of xylem differentiation
		Regulation of protoxylem and metaxylem differentiation
	Conclusions and perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
Transcriptional networks orchestrating programmed cell death during plant development
	Introduction
	NAC transcription factor family
	MYB transcription factor family
	bHLH transcription factor family
	Other transcription factor families involved in PCD
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Molecular regulation of flower development
	Introduction
	Formation and specification of floral meristems
	Floral patterning
	Floral organ specification
	Floral organ development
	Floral meristem termination
	Perspective and future challenges
	Acknowledgments
	References
Plus ça change, plus c´est la même chose: The developmental evolution of flowers
	Introduction
	Highly conserved (or convergent) pathways
		Floral organ identity
		Floral symmetry
	Floral size
		Organ size
		Organ number
	Organ elaboration
	Conclusion and future perspectives
	References
Pre-meiotic anther development
	Orientation to key steps in pre-meiotic anther development
	Stamens lack a meristem
	Lobe architecture
		Epidermis
		Endothecium
		Middle layer
		Tapetum
		Archesporial cells/pollen mother cells/meiocytes
	Classes of cell division defects in anther lobes
	Future directions
	Acknowledgments
	References
The evolution and patterning of male gametophyte development
	The evolutionary history of the male gametophyte
		The origins of spermatogenesis in green plants
		The sporophyte was key for terrestrial plant evolution
		Heterospory and the origin of microgametophytes
		Adaptations of seed plant microgametophytes
	Male germline development in angiosperms
		Asymmetric microspore division and cell fate determination
		Cell cycle control and male gametophyte patterning
		Transcriptional control of male gametophyte patterning
			Regulators that integrate the control of cell division and germline fate
			Regulation of DUO1 expression
			Regulators of pollen maturation that act in the vegetative cell
		Chromatin remodeling in male gametophyte development
		Communication between non-germ and germ cells
	Molecular evolution of the male germline
		Motile plant and animal sperm share common features
		Gene expression in male germ cells
		The evolution of transcription factors regulating male gametogenesis
	Perspective
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Evolution of development of pollen performance
	Introduction
	Pollen competition, a pervasive force
	Consequences of microgametogenesis for pollen longevity and germination speed
	Pollen tube growth rates and the evolution of ``accelerated´´ and ``delayed´´ fertilization
	The evolution of ``delayed fertilization´´
	The evolution of ``accelerated fertilization´´
	Acknowledgments
	References
Female reproductive organ formation: A multitasking endeavor
	Introduction
	Gynoecium/carpel and fruit
	Gynoecium morphology and development
	Transcription factor networks in gynoecium development
	Hormonal networks in gynoecium development
	Epigenetic control of gynoecium development
	Developmental depiction of fruit growth
	Transcriptional network in fruit development
	Hormonal network in fruit development
	Epigenetic regulation of fruit development
	Technology advances and molecular knowledge facilitate crop improvement
	Concluding remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Development and evolution of the unique ovules of flowering plants
	Introduction
	Ovule development
		Ovule initiation
		Ovule patterning
		Ovule identity
		Integument development
			Transcription factors
			Coactivators, corepressors and receptors
			Hormones
	Ovule evolution
		Angiosperm ovule diversification
		Origin of the angiosperm ovule
	Acknowledgments
	References
Development and function of the flowering plant female gametophyte
	Introduction
	Megasporogenesis
		Initiating the female germline
		Restricting germline fate
		Meiosis and the functional megaspore
	Megagametogenesis
		Mitotic divisions of the functional megaspore
		Regulation of nuclear positioning
		Specification of the micropylar-chalazal axis
		Gametophytic cell specification
			The egg cell
			The central cell
			The synergid cells
			The antipodal cells
		Restricting germ cell fate
	Concluding remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
Self-incompatibility in the Brassicaceae: Regulation and mechanism of self-recognition
	Introduction
	SI in the Brassicaceae: Selective activation of stigma receptors by pollen ligands
	Genetic regulation of SI recognition genes
	Spatiotemporal regulation of the SRK receptor
		Developmental regulation of SRK and integration of SI signaling with pistil developmental pathways
		Subcellular distribution of the SRK and its disruption in strategies for pollination control
	The structural basis of SCR perception by SRK
		Structure of the SRK-SCR complex
		Structural basis of selective ligand recognition
	Co-evolution and diversification of self-recognition molecules
	Future perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
Friend or foe: Signaling mechanisms during double fertilization in flowering seed plants
	Introduction
	Signaling during pollen tube growth and guidance
		Preovular growth and guidance
		Ovular guidance
			Attraction signals from the female gametophyte
			Receptor complexes at the pollen tube surface
		Novel techniques for analyzing guidance in vitro
	Signaling during pollen tube reception
		Synergid activation by the FERONIA signaling pathway
		Death of pollen tube and receptive synergid cell
		Death of the persistent synergid cell and prevention of polytubey
			Prevention of polytubey
			Elimination of persistent synergid cell function(s)
	Signaling during gamete interaction
		Gamete activation
		Gamete recognition, adhesion, and fusion
		Prevention of polyspermy
	Concluding remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
Genetic, molecular and parent-of-origin regulation of early embryogenesis in flowering plants
	Zygote formation: Fusion of the egg and sperm
	Zygotic genome activation
	Zygotic, maternal and paternal regulation of early embryogenesis
	Polarity of the zygote and first asymmetric division
	Specification of the epidermis, vascular, and ground tissue
	Initiation of shoot and root meristems
	Techniques and resources for molecular studies of embryogenesis
	Conclusions and perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
Histology versus phylogeny: Viewing plant embryogenesis from an evo-devo perspective
	Plant embryogenesis relates to the dominance of a diplontic lifestyle
	Embryonic phases and patterns
	Apical-basal polarity: A unifying feature with exceptions
	Embryonic transcriptional regulation
	WOX8 is a major target of zygote polarity determinants in A. thaliana
	From zygote polarity to multicellular meristems
	Plesiomorphies in seed plants
	The auxin connection
	Functional tests and limitations
	Conclusions and perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
Apomixis in flowering plants: Developmental and evolutionary considerations
	Apomixis: Confronting the evolutionary prevalence of sex
	Female gametogenesis in sexual and apomictic species
	Distribution of apomixis and interrelation with polyploidy and hybridization
	Genetic control of apomixis
	Unreduced female gamete formation and apomeiosis
	Haploid induction and parthenogenesis
	Environmental and epigenetic regulation of female gametogenesis
	Evolutionary considerations on the origins of apomixis
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Seeds-An evolutionary innovation underlying reproductive success in flowering plants
	Introduction
	The seed is composed of three compartments of distinct developmental origin
	Seed evolution is intimately linked to double fertilization
	The seed coat-A polyvalent capsule
	The endosperm-A nurse, a referee, and a check-point
	Genomic imprinting-The seed as a battle ground of parental conflicts
		Imprinting mechanisms in the endosperm
		Are imprinted genes conserved across species?
		Function of imprinted genes in the endosperm
		Imprinting in the control of interploidy and interspecific barriers
	Signaling interplay between seed compartments
		Interplay between the endosperm and the embryo
		Signaling interplay between the seed coat and the endosperm
	Conclusions and outlook
	Acknowledgments
	References