Phytoremediation Technology for the Removal of Heavy Metals and Other Contaminants from Soil and Water

Front cover
	Half title
	Title
	Copyright
	Dedication
	Contents
	Contributors
	About the editors
	Preface
	Acknowledgments
Chapter1 Phytoremediation and environmental bioremediation
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Constructed wetlands as phytoremediation tool of wastewater
		1.2.1 Types of constructed wetland
	1.3 Design criteria and calculations
		1.3.1 Site selection
		1.3.2 Hydrological factors
		1.3.3 Vegetation
		1.3.4 Substrates
	1.4 Metal removal mechanisms in constructed wetlands
	1.5 Case studies
		1.5.1 Treatment of dairy wastewater with hybrid macrophyte assisted vermifilter
		1.5.2 Macrophytes for salinity remediation of wastewater
	1.6 Phytoremediation and environmental bioremediation in other areas
		1.6.1 Phytoremediation in mine spoil
		1.6.2 Phytoremediation of radionuclides
		1.6.3 Phytoremediation of E-wastes
		1.6.4 Phytoremediation of oil contamination in coastal ecosystem
	1.7 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter2 Phytoremediation: The ultimate technique for reinstating soil contaminated with heavy metals and other pollutants
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Attributes of soil in relation to pollution/contamination
	2.3 Sources of soil and water contamination and their consequences
	2.4 Different types of pollutants and their fate in the soil and soil ecosystem
	2.5 Different cleaning techniques and their shortcomings
		2.5.1 Traditional methods
	2.6 Components of phytoremediation
		2.6.1 Phytoaccumulation/phytoextraction
		2.6.2 Phytostabilization
		2.6.3 Phytovolatilization
		2.6.4 Phytodegradation
	2.7 Hydraulic control
	2.8 Hyperaccumulating plants for different environments
	2.9 Enhancement of phytoremediation process
		2.9.1 Genetically engineered plants
	2.9.2 Phytoremediation enhanced techniques (plant–microbecombination systems)
		2.9.3 Energy crops
	2.9.4 Post–treatment of phytoremediation biomass
		2.9.5 The outstanding reports on phytoremediation technique
	2.10 Conclusion
	References
Chapter3 Phytoremediation: A sustainable green approach for environmental cleanup
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Phytoremediation as a cleanup technology
		3.2.1 Definition
		3.2.2 Mechanisms of plant phytoremediation
	3.3 The potential of phytoremediation
		3.3.1 Related to plants
		3.3.2 Interface of the soil-tolerant plant
	3.4 Case of study
		3.4.1 Selection of tolerant plants for remediation of mining waste contaminated with multimetals
	3.5 Final considerations
	References
Chapter4 Recent developments in aquatic macrophytes for environmental pollution control: A case study on heavy metal removal from lake water and agricultural return wastewater with the use of duckweed \\(Lemnacea\\)
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Phytoremediation technology: an overview
		4.2.1 Phytoextraction
		4.2.2 Phytostabilization
		4.2.3 Phytovolatilization
		4.2.4 Phytodegradation/phytotransformation
		4.2.5 Rhizodegradation/phytostimulation
		4.2.6 Phytofiltration/rhizofilteration
	4.3 Phytoremediation of heavy metals
		4.3.1 Zinc
		4.3.2 Copper
		4.3.3 Nickel
		4.3.4 Cadmium
		4.3.5 Lead
		4.3.6 Chromium
	4.4 Aquatic macrophytes for environmental pollution control
		4.4.1 Benefits of macrophytes as bioindicators in water pollution
		4.4.2 Benefits of macrophytes as bioindicators in water pollution
		4.4.3 Macrophytes types for removing heavy metals
		4.4.4 Biosorption and bioaccumulation mechanisms of heavy metals
	4.4.5 Factors affecting for heavy metal removal in Phytoremidation
		4.4.6 Waste management and disposal in phytoremidation
	4.5 Case study
		4.5.1 Investigated area
		4.5.2 Materials & methods
		4.5.3 Results and discussion
	4.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter5 Weed plants: A boon for remediation of heavy metal contaminated soil
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Heavy metals
	5.3 Categories of plants growing on metal contaminated soils
		5.3.1 Metal excluders
		5.3.2 Metal accumulators or hyperaccumulators
		5.3.3 Metal indicators
	5.4 Technologies for the reclamation of polluted soils
	5.5 Mechanism of phytoremediation
	5.6 Weeds
		5.6.1 Types of weeds
	5.7 Weed plants as phytoremediator
	5.8 Future of phytoremediation using weed plants
	5.9 Conclusion
	References
Chapter6 Oxidoreductase metalloenzymes as green catalyst for phytoremediation of environmental pollutants
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Phytoremediation
	6.3 Degradation of organic pollutants by phytoremediation
	6.4 Oxidoreductase enzymes in phytoremediation of organic pollutants
		6.4.1 Laccases
		6.4.2 Oxygenases
		6.4.3 Peroxidases
		6.4.4 Nitroreductase
	6.5 Transgenic plants used in phytoremediation of organic pollutants
	6.6 Phytoremediation of dyes and effluents mediated
	6.7 Heavy metal detoxification by phytoremediation
	6.8 Role of phytochelatin and metallothioneine in plant metallic stress
	6.9 Role of antioxidant enzymes against plant metallic stress
	6.10 Transgenic plants in the phytoremediation of heavy metals
	6.11 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter7 Phytoextraction of heavy metals: Challenges and opportunities
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Phytoremediation: sustainable green approach
		7.2.1 Phytoextraction
		7.2.2 Phytodegradation
		7.2.3 Phytodesalination
		7.2.4 Phytostabilization
		7.2.5 Phytovolatilization
		7.2.6 Phytofiltration
	7.3 Phytoextraction: promising strategy to remediate heavy metal pollution
		7.3.1 Metal hyperaccumulating plants: key assets of phytoextraction
		7.3.2 Factors affecting phytoextraction
	7.4 Challenges associated with phytoextraction process
	7.5 Advancements in phytoextraction technique
	7.6 Conclusion
	Reference
Chapter8 Potential and prospects of weed plants in phytoremediation and eco-restoration of heavy metals polluted sites
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Phytoremediation: a green technology
		8.2.1 Phytoremediation strategies
		8.2.2 Potential of weed plants for phytoremediation
	8.3 Eco-restoration of metal-polluted sites
		8.3.1 Wetlands
		8.3.2 Mine soils
		8.3.3 Fly ash deposits
		8.3.4 Tannery sludge
	8.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter9 Biochemical and molecular aspects of heavy metal stress tolerance in plants
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Mechanism of heavy metal tolerance
		9.2.1 Amino acids
		9.2.2 Phytochelatins
		9.2.3 Metallothioneins
	9.3 Role of metallothioneins in heavy metal tolerance
	9.4 Heavy metal tolerance
	9.5 Toxicity and heavy metal resistance in plants
	9.6 Heavy metal deposition molecular pathway in plants
	9.7 Conclusion and future scope
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter10 Monitoring the process of phytoremediation of heavy metals using spectral reflectance and remote sensing
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Arsenic and chromium contamination
	10.3 Spectral reflectance and remote sensing
	10.4 Uptake and accumulation of As and Cr in fern
	10.5 Uptake and accumulation of Cr in mustard
	10.6 Internal structural changes of fern
	10.7 Heavy metal-induced structural changes in mustard
	10.8 Plant spectral reflectance
	10.9 Spectral reflectance of brake fern
	10.10 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter11 Phytostabilization of metal mine tailings—a green remediation technology
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Impact of mine tailing on environmental
	11.3 Phyotostabilization of mine tailings
	11.4 Phytomining of mine tailing
	11.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter12 Phytoremediation of heavy metals, metalloids, and radionuclides: Prospects and challenges
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Special characteristics of phytoremediating plants
	12.3 Various mechanisms for removal of heavy metal metalloids
		12.3.1 Phytodegradation
		12.3.2 Phytoextraction
		12.3.3 Phytofiltration
		12.3.4 Phytostabilization
		12.3.5 Phytovolatilization
	12.4 Methods for enhancing phytoremediation capabilities
	12.5 Genetic engineering
	12.6 Utilization of microbes for improving performance of plant
	12.7 Challenges associated with phytoremediation strategies
	12.8 Conclusion and future prospects
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter13 Phytoremediation of metal: Lithium
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Materials and methods
		13.2.1 The characteristics of the plant used in plant toxicity experiments
		13.2.2 Experimental design
		13.2.3 Plant analyses
		13.2.4 Soil analyses
		13.2.5 Statistics
	13.3 Results and discussion
		13.3.1 Some chemical characteristics of the experimental soil
		13.3.2 Chemicals in soil and plant
	13.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter14 Aquatic macrophytes for environmental pollution control
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Macrophytes
	14.3 Free-floating macrophytes
	14.4 Submerged macrophytes
	14.5 Emergent macrophytes
	14.6 Sources of aquatic pollutants and their effects
		14.6.1 Domestic sewage
		14.6.2 Industrial waste
		14.6.3 Mining industry
	14.7 Pesticides and fertilizers
	14.8 Heavy metal pollution
	14.9 Phytoremediation: a green and an eco-friendly technology
	14.10 Phytofiltration(Rhizofilration)
	14.11 Potential role of macrophytes for environmental pollution control
		14.11.1 Azolla
		14.11.2 Eichhornia
		14.11.3 Lemna minor
		14.11.4 Potamogeton
		14.11.5 Wolfia and Wolfialla
	14.12 Conclusion
	References
Chapter15 Role of rhizobacteria from plant growth promoter to bioremediator
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Characteristics of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
	15.3 Influence of different bacterial species on rhizobacteria
		15.3.1 Pseudomonas species
		15.3.2 Bacillus species
		15.3.3 Rhizobium species
	15.4 Mechanism of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
		15.4.1 Direct mechanism
		15.4.2 Indirect mechanism
	15.5 Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria as bioremediators
	15.6 Potential role of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
	15.7 Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter16 Role of nanomaterials in phytoremediation of tainted soil
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Nanotechnology in soil remediation
		16.2.1 Removal of heavy metals
		16.2.2 Removal of pesticides
		16.2.3 Removal of organic materials
	16.3 Phytoremediation and contaminant removal
		16.3.1 Phytoextraction
		16.3.2 Phytodegradation
		16.3.3 Phytovolatilization
		16.3.4 Phytostabilization
		16.3.5 Rhizodegradation
	16.4 Nanomaterial facilitated phytoremediation and contaminant removal
		16.4.1 Potential nanomaterials in phytoremediation of soil
	16.5 Conclusion and future prospects
	References
Chapter17 Green technology: Phytoremediation for pesticide pollution
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Classification of pesticides
		17.2.1 Classification of pesticides based on toxicity
		17.2.2 Classification on the basis of entry
		17.2.3 Classification on the basis of chemical composition and structure
		17.2.4 Classification on the basis of the target pests they kill
	17.3 Hazardous impact of obsolete pesticides
		17.3.1 Impact of pesticides on environment
		17.3.2 Impact of the use of pesticides on human health
	17.4 Salient features of green technology
		17.4.1 Ozone
		17.4.2 Bioaugmentation
		17.4.3 Phytoremediation
	17.5 Process of phytoremediation in pesticide removal
	17.6 Antioxidant defense
	17.7 Roles of transgenic plants in pesticide detoxification
		17.7.1 Advantages of transgenic plants
		17.7.2 Pesticide degrading enzymes in transgenic plants
		17.7.3 Production of antibodies by transgenic plants for pesticide detoxification
	17.8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter18 Phytoremediation of persistent organic pollutants: Concept challenges and perspectives
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 History, sources, and classification of persistent organic pollutants
		18.2.1 History of persistent organic pollutants
		18.2.2 Sources of persistent organic pollutants
		18.2.3 Classification of persistent organic pollutants
	18.3 Phytoremediation
		18.3.1 Mechanism of phytoremediation
		18.3.2 Endophytic associated phytoremediation
	18.4 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons phytoremediation
	18.5 Conclusion and prospective
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter19 Gene mediated phytodetoxification of environmental pollutants
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Heavy metals as major soil contaminants
		19.2.1 Heavy metals
	19.2.2 Heavy metals’ sources into the environment
		19.2.3 Impact of heavy metals in environment
	19.3 Plant strategies in phytoremediation of heavy metals
		19.3.1 Phytoextraction
		19.3.2 Phytovolatilization
		19.3.3 Phytostabilization
		19.3.4 Phytofiltration
		19.3.5 Phytostimulation
	19.4 Hyperaccumulator plants with their characteristics
		19.4.1 Heavy metal ion transporter
		19.4.2 Indigenous plants in phytoremediation of metals
		19.4.3 Weed plants as natural hyperaccumulators
		19.4.4 Genetically engineered plants as hyperaccumulators in phytoremediation of heavy metals
		19.4.5 How do plants hyperaccumulate heavy metals?
	19.5 Mechanisms of heavy metal accumulation, tolerance
		19.5.1 Avoidance in plants
		19.5.2 Tolerance in plants
		19.5.3 Cellular and molecular pathways in phytoremediation
	19.6 Phytoremediation with transgenics
		19.6.1 Phytoremediation of organic pollutants with transgenic plants
		19.6.2 Metal phytoremediation using transgenic plants
	19.7 Increasing bioavailability of heavy metals
	19.8 Conclusion
		19.8.1 Concerns and future outlook
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter20 Nano-phytoremediation technology in environmental remediation
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Nano-phytoremediation technology for pesticides hazards
	20.3 Nano-phytoremediation of contaminated soil
		20.3.1 Different soil pollutants and their nano-phytoremediation
		20.3.2 Synthesized nanoparticles for decontamination of pollutants in soil
	20.4 Nano-phytoremediation for heavy metal contamination
		20.4.1 Heavy metal accumulator plants
		20.4.2 Nanoparticles used for removal of heavy metals
	20.5 Nano-phytoremediation for water contamination
		20.5.1 Nanoparticles used for decontamination of water
	20.6 Nano-phytoremediation bioenergy crops
	20.7 Conclusion and future prospective
	References
Chapter21 Nanophytoremediation technology: A better approach for environmental remediation of toxic metals and dyes from water
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Sources of contamination in water
	21.3 Conventional treatment for removal of metals and dyes from waste water
	21.4 Nanophytoremediation and its advantages
		21.4.1 Biosynthesis of nanoparticles
		21.4.2 Nanoparticles synthesized from plants
		21.4.3 Nanoparticles synthesized from microorganism
	21.5 Different strategies for detection and removal of metals
		21.5.1 Adsorption based metal and dye removal
		21.5.2 Fluorescence-based metal detection and removal
		21.5.2.3 Sensing based on dexter energy transfer
		21.5.2.4 Inner filter effect
		21.5.3 Photocatalysis-based dye removal techniques
	21.6 Toxicity and environmental impact of nanophytoremediation
	21.7 Limitations and future prospects
	21.8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter22 Constructed wetlands plant treatment system: An eco-sustainable phytotechnology for treatment and recycling of hazardous wastewater
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Wastewater from metallurgical industries
	22.3 Sanitary effluents of a pet-care center
	22.4 Fertilizer factory wastewater
	22.5 Landfill leachate
	22.6 Recycled paper industry
	22.7 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter23 Ecological aspects of aquatic macrophytes for environmental pollution control: An eco-remedial approach
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Macrophytes: From adverse effects to environmental solution
	23.3 Macrophytes and the contaminated environment: Discriminating between bioindication and phytoremediation
	23.4 Phytoremediation mechanisms related to macrophytes
	23.5 Nanoparticles
	23.6 Spectroscopic methods in monitoring and evaluation
	23.7 Macrophytes as a biological model
	23.8 Electrochemical sensors applied to the study of aquatic
	23.9 Conclusions
	References
Chapter24 Phytoremediation of trace elements from paper mill wastewater with Pistia stratiotes L.: Metal accumulation and antioxidant response
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Materials and methods
		24.2.1 Paper mill effluent (PME) collection and analysis of trace elements
		24.2.2 Plant sample collection
		24.2.3 Experimental set up
		24.2.4 Harvesting and plant growth estimation
	24.2.5 Determination of membrane injury index (MI)
		24.2.6 Estimation of total chlorophyll and carotenoid
		24.2.7 Lipid peroxidation, soluble protein, and free amino acid contents
	24.2.8 Determination of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) andsuperoxide radical (O2−)
		24.2.9 Measurement of antioxidant enzyme activity
		24.2.10 Determination of heavy metal in plant, wastewater
		24.2.11 Calculation of phytoremediation potential of plants
		24.2.12 Statistical analysis
	24.3 Results
		24.3.1 Effect of paper mill wastewater on plant growth parameters and plant pigments
		24.3.2 Effect of paper mill wastewater on oxidative stress levels
		24.3.3 Effect of PME on antioxidant activity
		24.3.4 Metal content in plant tissue
		24.3.5 Translocation factor(TF), and enrichment coefficient (EC) of trace elements
		24.3.6 Pistia stratiotes improved the wastewater quality in terms of trace elements
	24.4 Discussion
	References
Chapter25 Electrokinetic-assisted phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soil: Present status, challenges, and opportunities
	25.1 Remediation of contaminated soil
	25.2 Phytoremediation
	25.3 Electrokinetic remediation
	25.4 Coupled technology electrokinetics phytoremediation
		25.4.1 Electrophytoremediation at lab scale
		25.4.2 Effect of the DC electric field
		25.4.3 Enhancement with chelating agents
		25.4.4 Application of AC/DC electric field
	25.5 Influence of electrode configuration
	25.6 Impacts on soil properties and microbial community
	25.7 Patents and applications
	25.8 Conclusions
	References
Chapter26 Microbes-assisted phytoremediation of contaminated environment: Global status, progress, challenges, and future prospects
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Fundamentals concept of phytoremediation practices
	26.3 Microorganisms-assisted phytoremediation: An optimistic tools for remediation of environmental pollutants
	26.4 Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria assisted phytoremediation
	26.5 Endophyte-assisted phytoremediation
	26.6 Genetically modified microbe-assisted phytoremediation
	26.7 Microbe-assisted phytoremediation of heavy metal
	26.8 Microbe-assisted phytoremediation of agricultural chemicals
	26.9 Microbe-assisted phytoremediation of petroleum and aromatic compounds
	26.10 Worldwide emerging issues and challenges
	References
Chapter27 Electricity production and the analysis of the anode microbial community in a constructed wetland-microbial fuel cell
	27.1 Introduction of constructed wetland microbial fuel cell
		27.1.1 Construction of constructed wetland microbial fuel cell
		27.1.2 The principle of CW-MFC
		27.1.3 The application of CW-MFC in environmental remediation
	27.2 Power generation performance and its influencing factors of CW-MFC
		27.2.1 Influence of CW-MFC structure
		27.2.2 Effect of electrode materials
		27.2.3 Effect of electrode spacing
		27.2.4 Impact of plants
		27.2.5 Matrix effects
	27.3 Analysis of microbial community structure in anode of CW-MFC
		27.3.1 Influencing factors of anode microbial community
		27.3.2 The development of detection technology for anode microorganism
	27.4 Summary
	References
Chapter28 Phytocapping technology for sustainable management of contaminated sites: case studies, challenges, and future prospects
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Phytocapping
	28.3 Mechanism and strategy of phytocapping
	28.4 Case studies
		28.4.1 Case study 4.1
		28.4.2 Case study 4.2
		28.4.3 Case study 4.3
		28.4.4 Case study 4.4
		28.4.5 Case study 4.5
	28.5 Opportunities, challenges, and future aspects
		28.5.1 Opportunities
		28.5.2 Challenges
		28.5.3 Future prospects
	28.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
	Index
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