Phonology and Language Use

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Series-title......Page 6
Title......Page 7
Copyright......Page 8
Dedication......Page 9
Contents......Page 11
Figures......Page 15
Tables......Page 17
Acknowledgments......Page 19
1.1 Substance and Usage in Phonology......Page 21
1.2 Some Basic Principles of a Usage-Based Model......Page 26
1.3 The Creative Role of Repetition......Page 28
1.4 Frequency Effects......Page 30
1.4.1 Token Frequency......Page 31
1.4.2 Type Frequency and Productivity......Page 32
1.4.3 Frequency Effects in Other Theories......Page 33
1.5 Phonology as Procedure, Structure as Emergent......Page 34
1.6 Organization of the Book......Page 36
1.7 Language as a Part of Human Behavior......Page 37
2.1 Introduction......Page 39
2.2 The Rule/List Fallacy......Page 40
2.3 Organized Storage......Page 41
2.4 Morphological Structure Is Emergent......Page 43
2.5 Rules and Schemas Compared......Page 46
2.6 Frequency Effects......Page 48
2.7 Units of Storage......Page 49
2.9 From Local to General Schemas......Page 51
2.10 Conclusion......Page 53
3.2 The Phonemic Principle......Page 55
3.3 A Cognitively Realistic Model of Phonological Representation......Page 57
3.4.1 Lexical Variation......Page 60
3.4.2 Change in the Locus of Contrast......Page 63
3.4.3 Schemas Generalize Over Predictable Material......Page 66
3.5.1 Phonemic Representation......Page 69
3.5.2 Phonetic Categorization......Page 70
3.6 Phonetic Detail in the Lexicon–Variation and the Early Involvement of the Lexicon and Morphology in Change......Page 74
3.7 A Model for Sound Change......Page 77
3.8 Special Reduction of High-Frequency Words and Phrases......Page 80
3.9 Conclusion......Page 82
4.1 Introduction......Page 83
4.2 Phonetic Etiology and Its Limits......Page 85
4.3.1 The Gestural Approach......Page 89
4.3.2 Assimilation......Page 91
4.3.3 Other Retiming Changes......Page 92
4.3.4 Reductive Processes......Page 93
4.3.5 Acoustic-Perceptual Aspects of Phonological Processes and Change......Page 95
4.3.6 Section Summary......Page 96
4.4.1 Temporal and Substantive Reduction......Page 97
4.4.3 Strengthenings......Page 99
4.4.4 Perceptually Motivated Changes......Page 101
4.4.5 Gestures or Individual Muscles?......Page 103
4.5 Segments as Emergent Units......Page 105
4.6 Generalization over Syllable-Initial and Syllable-Final Position......Page 106
4.7.1 Phonotactics and Phonological Processes......Page 108
4.7.2 Phonotactics as Emergent Generalizations......Page 109
4.7.3 Phonological Generalizations with High Type Frequency as Sources of Change......Page 113
4.8 Conclusion......Page 115
5.1 Introduction......Page 116
5.2.1 The Preference for Morphological over Phonological Conditioning......Page 117
5.2.2 Divergence of Phonological Patterns in Different Morphological Contexts......Page 120
5.2.3 The Break-Up of Phonological Natural Classes in Morphologized Patterns......Page 125
5.2.4 The Basic/Derived Relation in Phonology and Morphology......Page 127
5.3 Lexical Storage of Complex Forms, Both Regular and Irregular......Page 129
5.4 Lexical Strength......Page 133
5.5 Paradigmatic Relations Expressed as Lexical Connections......Page 137
5.6 Lexical Classes: Productivity Due to Type Frequency......Page 138
5.7 The Interaction of Lexical Strength and Lexical Connection......Page 144
5.8 Product-Oriented Schemas......Page 146
5.9 Phonological Similarity in Gangs......Page 150
5.10 Conclusion......Page 155
6.1 Introduction......Page 157
6.2.1 Words Tend to Have a Single Range of Variation......Page 158
6.2.2 Word Boundary Phenomena......Page 163
6.3.1 Alternations Develop in Morphemes......Page 164
6.3.2 Morphemes in Alternating Environments......Page 165
6.3.3 Uniform Environments......Page 168
6.3.4.1 The Weakening of  /f/ to  /h/ in Spanish......Page 173
6.3.4.2 Palatalization in Latin Verbs......Page 174
6.4 Phrases and Constructions with Alternations......Page 177
6.4.1 The Reduction of don’t in American English......Page 178
6.4.2 String Frequency and Other Measures of Probability......Page 181
6.4.3 Phonological Reduction in Grammaticizing Constructions......Page 185
6.5 Conclusion......Page 186
7.1 Introduction......Page 187
7.2 Final Consonant Deletion in French......Page 188
7.3 Grammatical Constructions and Liaison......Page 191
7.4 Loss of Liaison as Regularization......Page 197
7.6 Taking the Phonology Seriously......Page 205
7.7 Conclusion......Page 207
8.1 Universals and Explanation......Page 209
8.2 Searching for Universals......Page 211
8.3 Phoneme Inventories......Page 217
8.4 Two Main Mechanisms for Phonological Change......Page 219
8.4.1 Interaction of Mechanisms......Page 221
8.5.1 Preference Laws......Page 224
8.5.2 Paths of Change......Page 226
8.6 More Evidence against Universals as Purely Synchronic......Page 231
8.7 Diachronic Sources for Formal Universals: The Phonemic Principle and Structure Preservation......Page 232
References......Page 237
Author Index......Page 251
Subject Index......Page 255
Languages Index......Page 258