Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Potential of Cyanobacteria

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Cyanobacterial Cell Factories; Insight into Their Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Properties
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Cyanobacteria: The Potential Source of Pharmaceutically Important Bioactive Compounds
		1.2.1 Cyanobacteria as Antidiabetic Agent
		1.2.2 Cyanobacteria as Anticancer Therapeutic
		1.2.3 Cyanobacteria as Antimicrobial Agent
		1.2.4 Cyanobacteria as an Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Source
	1.3 Cyanobacteria as Nutraceutical Agents
		1.3.1 Pigments
		1.3.2 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
		1.3.3 Polysaccharides and Proteins
	1.4 Advances in the Extraction Technologies of Nutraceuticals
		1.4.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
		1.4.2 Wave-Base Extraction Methods
		1.4.3 High-Pressure Liquid Extraction (PLE)
	1.5 Strategies for Identification and Production of Cyanobacterial Pharmaceuticals and Nutraceuticals
		1.5.1 Adaptive Evolution to Physiological Changes
		1.5.2 OMICs-Mediated Identification of Gene/Pathway Targets
		1.5.3 Genetic Modification
	1.6 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 2: Cyanobacterial Pigments: Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Applications
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Classification of Cyanobacteria
	2.3 Cyanobacteria Cultivation
	2.4 The Most Used Cyanobacteria
		2.4.1 Arthrospira or Spirulina
		2.4.2 Nostoc
		2.4.3 Synechococcus
		2.4.4 Anabaena
		2.4.5 Nannochloropsis
	2.5 Pigments of Cyanobacteria
		2.5.1 Chlorophyll
		2.5.2 Phycocyanin
		2.5.3 Phycoerythrin
	2.6 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 3: Spirulina as a Food of the Future
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Applications and Market Potential of Spirulina
		3.2.1 Spirulina as a Human Food Additive
		3.2.2 Spirulina as a Poultry Feed Additive
		3.2.3 Spirulina as an Aquaculture Feed Additive
		3.2.4 Spirulina as Food for the Future
		3.2.5 Market Potential of Spirulina
	3.3 Challenges in the Production Pipeline
		3.3.1 Challenges Associated with Outdoor Open Pond Cultivation
			3.3.1.1 Contamination Risk in Outdoor Cultivation Setup
			3.3.1.2 Culture Crash
			3.3.1.3 Expensive Cultivation Media
		3.3.2 Challenges Associated with the Processing Pipeline
			3.3.2.1 Quality Assurance
			3.3.2.2 Harvesting of Biomass
			3.3.2.3 Quality Maintenance During Drying and Packaging
	3.4 Emerging Cultivation-Based Technologies
		3.4.1 Wetland Farming
		3.4.2 Closed Photobioreactors (PBRs)
	3.5 Spirulina-Based Commercialized Products
	3.6 Conclusions and Prospects
	References
Chapter 4: Potential of Cyanobacterial Biomass as an Animal Feed
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Cyanobacterial and Microalgal Metabolites
		4.2.1 Lipids
		4.2.2 Proteins
		4.2.3 Carbohydrates
		4.2.4 Astaxanthin
		4.2.5 Lutein
		4.2.6 β-Carotene
		4.2.7 Phycobilin
		4.2.8 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)
	4.3 Potential of Cyanobacteria as Feed
		4.3.1 Livestock
		4.3.2 Microalgae for Meat Quality
		4.3.3 Microalgae for Milk Production and Quality
		4.3.4 Poultry
		4.3.5 Microalgae Feed Supplement for Egg Production
		4.3.6 Suitability of Algal Biomass for Aquafeed
	4.4 Challenges in Producing Microalgae/Cyanobacteria Biomass as Feedstock
		4.4.1 Contamination Risks
		4.4.2 Light Availability
		4.4.3 Nutrient Availability
		4.4.4 Temperature
	4.5 Economic Feasibility of Microalgae Production and Market Values
	4.6 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 5: Cost-Effective Cultivation of Cyanobacteria for Biotechnological Applications
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Cultivation Strategies
		5.2.1 Photoautotrophic Mode of Cultivation
		5.2.2 Heterotrophic Mode of Cultivation
		5.2.3 Mixotrophic Mode of Cultivation
	5.3 Cost-Effective Cultivation Systems
		5.3.1 Cultivation Using Open Raceway Pond (ORP)
		5.3.2 Closed Photobioreactors for High-Quality Biomass Production
			5.3.2.1 Efficient Cultivation of Cyanobacteria Using Tubular Photobioreactors
			5.3.2.2 Flat-Panel Photobioreactors
			5.3.2.3 Biofilm-Based Cyanobacterial Cultivation
	5.4 Evaluation of Outdoor and Indoor Cultivation in Terms of Cost and Biomass Production
	5.5 Wastewater-Based Cultivation of Cyanobacteria
		5.5.1 Improving the Process Economics Through Water and Nutrient Recycling
	5.6 Factors Affecting the Cyanobacterial Growth
		5.6.1 Impact of Temperature
		5.6.2 Impact of pH Variations
		5.6.3 Impact of Light
	5.7 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 6: Storage, Processing, and Stability of Phycobilins
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Storage of Phycobilins
		6.2.1 Freeze-Drying
		6.2.2 Vacuum Packaging
	6.3 Factors Effecting Phycobilin Stability During Storage
	6.4 Stability of Phycobilins
		6.4.1 Effect of Light on the Stability of Phycobilin
		6.4.2 Effect of pH Control on the Stability of Phycobilin
		6.4.3 Effect of Temperature Control on the Stability of Phycobilin
		6.4.4 Oxygen Exposure Effecting the Stability of Phycobilin
		6.4.5 Other Environmental Factors Effecting the Stability of Phycobilin
	6.5 Extraction of Phycobilins
		6.5.1 Solvent and Solvent-Assisted Extraction
		6.5.2 Conventional Techniques
		6.5.3 Factors Affecting Extraction
	6.6 Processing of Phycobilins
	6.7 Effects of Processing on Phycobilins
	6.8 Purification and Characterization
		6.8.1 Chromatographic Techniques
		6.8.2 Aqueous Biphasic Systems
	6.9 Applications of Phycobilins
		6.9.1 Biotechnological Applications
		6.9.2 Food
		6.9.3 Cosmetics
		6.9.4 Medicine
	6.10 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 7: Nonconventional and Novel Strategies to Produce Spirulina Biomass
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Mixotrophic Cultivation
	7.3 Split Mixotrophic Cultivation Strategy
	7.4 Eco-Design of Spirulina Solar Cultivation
	7.5 Heterotrophic Cultivation
		7.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Heterotrophic Cultivation
		7.5.2 Plastic Bags or Bottles
		7.5.3 Photobioreactors (PBRs)
		7.5.4 Closed Cultivation Systems
		7.5.5 Stirred-Tank Bioreactors
		7.5.6 Closed and Semiclosed Outdoor Photobioreactors
		7.5.7 Hybrid Systems
	7.6 Membrane Photobioreactors (MPBRs)
	7.7 Phototaxis-Based Cultivation
	7.8 Cocultivation for Spirulina
	7.9 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 8: Cyanobacteria-Based Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles for Industrial Applications
	8.1 Introduction
		8.1.1 Classification of Nanoparticles
		8.1.2 Methods of Nanoparticle Synthesis
			8.1.2.1 Conventional Methods
			8.1.2.2 Modern Methods
		8.1.3 Characterization of Nanoparticles
	8.2 Cyanobacteria as Useful Bio-Machinery
		8.2.1 Classification of Cyanobacteria
			8.2.1.1 Chroococcales
			8.2.1.2 Pleurocapsales
			8.2.1.3 Oscillatoriales
			8.2.1.4 Nostocales
			8.2.1.5 Stigonematales
		8.2.2 Significance of Cyanobacteria in NP Synthesis
	8.3 Mechanism of NP Synthesis
		8.3.1 Intracellular Synthesis of NPs
		8.3.2 Extracellular Synthesis of NPs
	8.4 Applications of Nanoparticles Synthesized by Cyanobacteria
		8.4.1 Medical Applications
		8.4.2 Agricultural and Food Applications
		8.4.3 Industrial and Environmental Applications
	8.5 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 9: Cyanobacterial Bioactive Compounds: Synthesis, Extraction, and Applications
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Bioactive Compounds Produced by Cyanobacteria
		9.2.1 Alkaloids
		9.2.2 Terpenoids
		9.2.3 Polysaccharides
		9.2.4 Pigments
		9.2.5 Cyclic Peptides
		9.2.6 Phenols and Fatty Acids
		9.2.7 Vitamins
	9.3 Extraction Techniques for Cyanobacterial Bioactive Compounds
		9.3.1 Traditional Extraction Methods
		9.3.2 Modern Extraction Techniques
	9.4 Synthesis Pathways and Genetic Manipulation of Cyanobacteria
	9.5 Engineering Cyanobacteria for Enhanced Bioactive Compound Production
	9.6 Metabolic Engineering Approaches
	9.7 Applications of Cyanobacterial Bioactive Compounds
		9.7.1 Therapeutic Applications
		9.7.2 Bioremediation
		9.7.3 Food Additives
		9.7.4 Biofertilizers
		9.7.5 Cosmetics
		9.7.6 Bioenergy and Biofuels
		9.7.7 Nanobiotechnological Applications
	9.8 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 10: Threats, Challenges and Issues of Large-Scale Cyanobacterial Cultivation
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Different Aspects of Cyanobacterial Production Systems
		10.2.1 Phototrophic Culture in Open Systems
		10.2.2 Heterotrophic Culture in Closed Photobioreactor (PBR) Systems
		10.2.3 Mixotrophic Culture in Photobioreactors (PBRs)
	10.3 Challenges in Multi-parameters Optimization of Cyanobacterial Biomass
	10.4 Cyanobacterial Strains in Bioenergy
		10.4.1 Biohydrogen Production
		10.4.2 Bioethanol Production
		10.4.3 Butanol Production
		10.4.4 Biodiesel Production
		10.4.5 Bioelectricity Production
	10.5 Cyanobacterial Strains in Functional Foods
		10.5.1 Carbohydrates and Fibres
		10.5.2 Proteins and Peptides
	10.6 Cyanobacterial Strains in High-Value Chemicals
		10.6.1 Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) as a Sustainable Bioplastic
		10.6.2 Cyanobacterial Strains and Their Pigment Potential in the Food Industry
		10.6.3 Cyanobacteria Possess Value-Added Compounds for the Cosmetics Industry
		10.6.4 Cyanobacterial Value-Added Compounds for the Pharmacological Industry
		10.6.5 Zeaxanthin Biosynthesis by Cyanobacteria
		10.6.6 Cyanobacterial Pigment Potential in Research and Development
	10.7 Risk Involved in Circular Bioeconomy Frameworks
		10.7.1 Constraints in Downstream Processing of Cyanobacteria
		10.7.2 Adaptation in Production Media for High Yields
	10.8 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 11: Cyanobacterial Exopolysaccharides: Extraction, Processing, and Applications
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Cyanobacterial Exopolysaccharides (EPS)
	11.3 Chemical, Physicochemical, and Rheological Properties of Exopolysaccharides
	11.4 Pathways Involved in the Biosynthesis of Cyanobacteria Exopolysaccharides
		11.4.1 Wzx-Wzy-Dependent Pathway
		11.4.2 ABC Transporter-Dependent Pathway
		11.4.3 Synthase-Dependent Pathway
	11.5 Approaches to Enhance the Production of EPS
		11.5.1 Starvation of Nitrogen, Sulfate, and Phosphorus
		11.5.2 Salinity
		11.5.3 Intensity of Light
		11.5.4 Effect of Temperature
		11.5.5 Effect of Other Culture Conditions
	11.6 Methods for the Extraction of Cyanobacterial Exopolysaccharides
		11.6.1 Extraction Using Alcoholic Precipitation
		11.6.2 Use of Tangential Ultrafiltration for Extraction
		11.6.3 Alternative Methods for EPS Extraction
	11.7 Strategies for the Processing of EPS from Cyanobacteria
		11.7.1 Selection of Strain
		11.7.2 Optimization of Parameters Involved in Production
	11.8 Downstream Processing
	11.9 Applications of Cyanobacterial Exopolysaccharides in Bioindustry
	11.10 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 12: Innovations in the Cyanobacteria-Based Biorefineries for Biopharmaceutical Industries
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Considerations for Industrial Implementation of Cyanobacterial Biorefinery
		12.2.1 Strain Development
		12.2.2 Cultivation Modes for the Cyanopharm Industry
		12.2.3 Sustainable Processing for the Cyanopharm Biorefinery
	12.3 Biopharma Projects-Thinking for Future
		12.3.1 Immobilization and Encapsulation
		12.3.2 Exporter Engineering for Product Recovery
		12.3.3 Industry 4.0 Technologies
		12.3.4 Integrated Models and Sustainable Value Chains
	12.4 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 13: Cyanobacteria Biotechnology: Challenges and Prospects
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Challenges Associated with Cyanobacteria-Based Bioproducts
		13.2.1 Biopolymers from Cyanobacterial Biomass
		13.2.2 Cyanobacterial Biomass to Biodiesel
		13.2.3 Cyanobacterial Biomass to Biohydrogen
		13.2.4 Biomethane from Cyanobacterial Biomass
		13.2.5 Cyanobacterial Biomass to Biochemicals
	13.3 Metabolic Engineering of the Cyanobacteria for Bioproducts
	13.4 Synthetic Biology Approaches to Develop Cyanobacteria-Based Microbial Platforms
	13.5 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 14: Global Research Trends in Cyanobacteria: Bioproducts and Culture Collection
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Methodology
	14.3 Results and Discussion
		14.3.1 Global Publications by Year
		14.3.2 Global Production by Country/Territory
		14.3.3 Global Publications by Source per Year
		14.3.4 Global Publications by Article Type
		14.3.5 Global Publication by Subject Area
	14.4 Biotechnological Potential of Cyanobacteria for Diverse Bioproducts
	14.5 Global Culture Collection Banks for Cyanobacteria Preservation and Sharing
	14.6 Conclusion and Prospects
	References