Petroleum Refining in Nontechnical Language

Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
Radio frequency (RF) radiation......Page 10
History of radio transmission......Page 11
The nature of radio waves......Page 12
Frequency and wavelength......Page 18
Conveying intelligence by radio waves......Page 20
Ionising and non-ionising radiations......Page 22
2 Power......Page 23
8 Specific absorption rate (SAR)......Page 24
13 Antenna (aerial)......Page 25
19 RF machines and RF plant......Page 26
Decibels and power......Page 27
Referencing ratios......Page 28
MF and HF broadcasting......Page 30
UHF and VHF broadcasting......Page 35
Tropospheric scatter systems......Page 40
Air traffic control (ATC) communications......Page 42
Satellite communication systems......Page 43
Radar systems......Page 45
RF machines......Page 49
Processing machines......Page 50
Medical therapy equipment......Page 52
General......Page 54
3 Effects of radio frequency radiation......Page 56
3 Effects on things in the environment......Page 61
Absorption of energy by the human body......Page 62
Occupational and public safety limits......Page 63
Specific absorption rate (SAR)......Page 64
Thermal effects......Page 66
Human thermo-regulation......Page 67
RF penetration in human tissues......Page 68
Resonance......Page 69
Hot spots......Page 71
Susceptible organs......Page 73
Limb currents......Page 76
RF shocks and burns......Page 78
Pulsed radiation......Page 81
The ICNIRP98 document......Page 82
Effects on people wearing implantable devices......Page 83
The application of exposure limits - recent developments......Page 84
Treatment of malignant tumours......Page 85
RF radiation effects - summary......Page 86
4 The development of standards for human safety......Page 95
The purpose of standards and guides in this field......Page 96
Leakage standards......Page 97
Exposure standards......Page 98
Basic restrictions......Page 100
Introduction......Page 104
Terminology in the documents......Page 105
Basic restrictions......Page 106
Power density......Page 109
Induced limb and body currents......Page 115
Contact currents......Page 116
Federal Communications Commission (FCC– USA)......Page 0
Time-averaging......Page 118
Multiple irradiations......Page 119
Simultaneous irradiation from several sources......Page 120
Specifying peak pulse power density limits......Page 122
Whole and partial body exposure......Page 123
High current DC sources with high harmonic content......Page 124
Amateur Radio stations......Page 125
Guide to reading new standards......Page 126
Reflections on the use of standards......Page 127
Basic approach......Page 129
Maximum extractable power Ò 30 MHz and above......Page 131
Characteristics of flammable vapours......Page 132
Pulse transmissions......Page 134
Other aspects......Page 135
Antenna survey information requirements......Page 138
Microwave calculations......Page 139
Antennas with circular apertures......Page 142
Elliptical and rectangular apertures......Page 150
Use of a computer spreadsheet for calculations......Page 153
Useful approximations for microwave antennas......Page 154
Specialist aspects of microwave calculations......Page 157
The nature of moving beam systems......Page 158
Moving beams......Page 159
\'Moving people\'!......Page 166
Far field formula......Page 169
Broadcast antennas......Page 172
AM broadcast stations......Page 173
FM and TV broadcast stations......Page 174
Frequencies up to 30 MHz (vertical polarisation)......Page 175
Simultaneous irradiation from several sources......Page 177
Specifying peak pulse power density limits......Page 179
Other methods of specifying peak pulse power density Ò IEEE99......Page 180
6 Mobile communications systems......Page 181
Mobile telephone systems in public use......Page 186
Towers......Page 187
Radio communications and the problems of coverage......Page 189
The public concern - base stations......Page 190
Rooftop equipment......Page 199
Tower located equipment......Page 203
Mobile phone handsets......Page 204
The Stewart report......Page 209
Experimental safety marking system......Page 211
7 RF radiation measuring instruments and methods......Page 212
Personal safety monitors......Page 214
Ancillary equipment......Page 215
Construction and operation......Page 216
Types of probe detectors......Page 219
Probe application......Page 221
Measurement capabilities......Page 225
Instrument features and limitations......Page 229
Field survey instruments......Page 235
Systems for use in particular situations including production......Page 239
Personal and area monitors......Page 240
Limb current and contact current measurement equipment......Page 246
Instruments for very low frequencies......Page 248
The nature of X-ray radiation......Page 253
Ionising radiation units......Page 258
X-ray hazards......Page 259
X-ray permitted limits......Page 260
X-ray production......Page 263
Measuring equipment......Page 269
Ionisation chamber instruments......Page 270
The Geiger-Muller counter......Page 273
Scintillation counters......Page 274
Other instruments and devices......Page 275
Practical measuring instruments......Page 277
Search instruments......Page 279
Checklist for ionisation chamber measurement instruments......Page 282
Energy assessment......Page 286
9 Planning surveys and measurements......Page 287
RF exposure tests......Page 288
instruments......Page 289
The handling and manipulation of instruments......Page 291
Uncertainty of measurement......Page 293
Avoiding sensor burn-out in RF radiation probes......Page 295
Measurement problems......Page 298
RF Protective clothing......Page 299
Detailed planning......Page 300
Equipment and site topographical data......Page 304
Personnel on site......Page 305
Planning and documentation......Page 306
Data gathering......Page 307
Simple site example......Page 309
Transmission systems......Page 314
RF machines and plant......Page 318
Signs and barriers......Page 319
Creating records and reports......Page 320
Pictorial recording of data......Page 322
Controlling changes to equipment and the site......Page 324
X-rays......Page 326
Common electrical safety considerations......Page 327
X-ray surveys......Page 328
regulations......Page 333
RF leakage testing......Page 334
Other leakage test methods......Page 337
RF machines and other sources......Page 338
Surveys of microwave beams......Page 342
Field measurements for personnel access......Page 352
Near field measurements......Page 354
Characterising beam systems......Page 355
Measurement of rotating radar systems......Page 356
Special cases of movable beams......Page 357
Spatial averaging......Page 358
Time-averaging......Page 359
Ground communications systems......Page 360
Large fixed tropo-scatter systems......Page 361
MF and HF wire and mast antenna systems......Page 362
UHF, VHF and HF Whip and rod antennas for ground use......Page 365
Satellite ground stations......Page 367
Avionics and ship systems......Page 368
Ship systems......Page 369
Leakage surveys......Page 370
Human exposures to be considered......Page 371
Children and RF fields......Page 374
The design process......Page 375
Planning design from the radiation safety viewpoint......Page 379
Customer and national radiation protection requirements......Page 380
Using products......Page 381
Product maintenance......Page 382
Design tests......Page 383
Shielding......Page 384
Safety interlocks and safety systems......Page 386
Appropriate materials for high power work......Page 388
Installations......Page 389
Vehicle installations......Page 390
X-ray shielding data......Page 391
Measuring the effective energy of X-rays from a source......Page 392
Lead glass......Page 396
RF shielding materials......Page 397
Structural materials and RF shielding......Page 399
12 Radio frequency radiation safety management and training......Page 401
The identification of potential hazards......Page 403
Resources......Page 404
Procedures......Page 405
Handling survey reports......Page 407
Safety record keeping......Page 408
Training......Page 409
RF safety training for technical people......Page 410
The calibration of measuring equipment......Page 412
RF radiation meters......Page 413
RF radiation incident investigation......Page 416
Gathering information......Page 418
Reporting on incidents......Page 419
Units - non-SI and SI unit relationships......Page 422
relationships (plane wave conditions)......Page 423
Informal abbreviations used in this work......Page 425
Organisations and systems......Page 426
Standards, guides and associated documents......Page 428
Suppliers referred to in this book who have an internet presence......Page 429
Known training courses......Page 430
References......Page 431
Index......Page 438