Performance of the jet transport airplane : analysis methods, flight operations, and regulations

Content: Foreword xi Series Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 De   nitions of Performance 1 1.2 Commercial Air Transportation 3 1.3 Jet Transport Airplanes: A Short History 4 1.4 Regulatory Framework 8 1.5 Performance-Related Activities 9 1.6 Analysis Techniques and Idealizations 12 References 14 2 Engineering Fundamentals 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Notation, Units, and Conversion Factors 18 2.3 Mass, Momentum, Weight, and Gravity 21 2.4 Basics of Rigid Body Dynamics 26 2.5 Basics of Fluid Dynamics 33 2.6 Further Reading 43 References 43 3 Aerodynamic Fundamentals 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Standard De   nitions and Notation 45 3.3 Coordinate Systems and Conventions 53 3.4 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 55 3.5 Compressibility 63 3.6 Boundary Layers 65 3.7 High Lift Devices 67 3.8 Controls for Pitch, Roll, and Yaw 71 3.9 Further Reading 75 References 75 4 Atmosphere and Weather 77 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 International Standard Atmosphere 77 4.3 Non-Standard and O   -Standard Atmospheres 85 4.4 The Real Atmosphere 89 4.5 Weather 91 4.6 Stability of the Atmosphere 96 References 98 5 Height Scales and Altimetry 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Height Scales 101 5.3 Altimetry 104 5.4 Flight Levels, Tracks, and Airspace 111 References 114 6 Distance and Speed 115 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Distance 115 6.3 True Airspeed, Ground Speed, and Navigation 118 6.4 Speed of Sound and Mach Number 120 6.5 Dynamic Pressure and Equivalent Airspeed 121 6.6 Calibrated Airspeed 122 6.7 Indicated Airspeed 127 6.8 Relationship Between Airplane Speeds 128 References 130 7 Lift and Drag 131 7.1 Introduction 131 7.2 Airplane Lift 132 7.3 Airplane Drag 137 7.4 Drag Polar 143 7.5 Drag Polar Corrections 150 7.6 Lift-to-Drag Ratio 158 7.7 Minimum Drag Condition 162 7.8 Minimum Drag Power (Required Power) Condition 164 7.9 Minimum Drag-to-Speed Ratio Condition 166 7.10 Summary of Expressions Based on the Parabolic Drag Polar 169 References 171 8 Propulsion 175 8.1 Introduction 175 8.2 Basic Description of the Turbofan Engine 176 8.3 Engine Thrust 184 8.4 Fuel Flow and Thrust Speci   c Fuel Consumption 190 8.5 Thrust Control, Engine Design Limits, and Ratings 194 8.6 Thrust Variation 202 8.7 Fuel Flow and TSFC Variation 209 8.8 Installation Losses and Engine Deterioration 212 8.9 Further Reading 217 References 218 9 Takeo    Performance 221 9.1 Introduction 221 9.2 Takeo    Distances 222 9.3 Forces Acting on the Airplane During the Ground Run 227 9.4 Evaluation of the Takeo    Distance from Brake Release to Rotation 232 9.5 Rotation and Climb-Out to Clear the Screen Height 238 9.6 Empirical Estimation of Takeo    Distances 241 9.7 Evaluation of Rejected Takeo    Runway Distances 244 9.8 Wheel Braking 247 9.9 Takeo    on Contaminated Runways 252 References 255 10 Takeo    Field Length and Takeo    Climb Considerations 257 10.1 Introduction 257 10.2 Takeo    Reference Speeds 258 10.3 Takeo    Weight Limitations 261 10.4 Runway Limitations and Data 265 10.5 Operational Field Length and Runway-Limited Takeo    Weight 268 10.6 Takeo    Climb Gradient Requirements 272 10.7 Takeo    Climb Obstacle Clearance 274 10.8 Derated Thrust and Reduced Thrust Takeo    277 References 280 11 Approach and Landing 283 11.1 Introduction 283 11.2 Procedure for Approach and Landing 284 11.3 Forces Acting on the Airplane During the Ground Run 287 11.4 Landing Distance Estimation 291 11.5 Empirical Estimation of the Landing Distance 297 11.6 Landing on Contaminated Runways 298 11.7 Flight Operations 300 11.8 Rejected Landing 307 References 308 12 Mechanics of Level, Climbing, and Descending Flight 311 12.1 Introduction 311 12.2 Basic Equations of Motion 312 12.3 Performance in Level Flight 315 12.4 Performance in Climbing Flight 319 12.5 Performance in Descending Flight 334 12.6 Further Reading 337 References 338 13 Cruising Flight and Range Performance 339 13.1 Introduction 339 13.2 Speci   c Air Range and Still Air Range Determination 340 13.3 Analytical Integration 345 13.4 Numerical Integration 351 13.5 Cruise Optimization Based on Aerodynamic Parameters 354 13.6 Best Cruise Speeds and Cruise Altitudes 360 13.7 Further Details on the Use of the Bre'guet Range Equation 363 13.8 In   uence of Wind on Cruise Performance 366 References 370 14 Holding Flight and Endurance Performance 373 14.1 Introduction 373 14.2 Basic Equation for Holding/Endurance 374 14.3 Analytical Integration 375 14.4 Numerical Integration 378 14.5 Flight Conditions for Maximum Endurance 379 14.6 Holding Operations 382 References 384 15 Mechanics of Maneuvering Flight 385 15.1 Introduction 385 15.2 Turning Maneuvers 386 15.3 Level Coordinated Turns 389 15.4 Climbing or Descending Turns 396 15.5 Level Uncoordinated Turns 398 15.6 Limits and Constraints in Turning Maneuvers 400 15.7 Pitching Maneuvers 403 15.8 Total Energy 404 References 409 16 Trip Fuel Requirements and Estimation 411 16.1 Introduction 411 16.2 ICAO Requirements 412 16.3 FAA Requirements 412 16.4 EASA Requirements 414 16.5 Trip Fuel Computational Procedure 416 16.6 Payload   Range Performance 418 16.7 Trip Fuel Breakdown and Fuel Fractions 422 16.8 Trip Fuel Estimation 424 16.9 Estimating Trip Distances (To Be Flown) 428 16.10 Transporting (Tankering) Fuel 429 16.11 Reclearance 430 16.12 Factors That Can Impact Cruise Fuel 432 16.13 Impact of Small Changes on Cruise Fuel 435 References 437 17 En Route Operations and Limitations 439 17.1 Introduction 439 17.2 Climb to Initial Cruise Altitude (En Route Climb) 440 17.3 Cruise Altitude Selection 443 17.4 En Route Engine Failure 446 17.5 En Route Cabin Pressurization Failure 450 17.6 Extended Operations 451 17.7 Continuous Descent Operations 454 References 455 18 Cost Considerations 457 18.1 Introduction 457 18.2 Airplane Operating Costs 458 18.3 Cost Index 461 18.4 Unit Energy Cost 468 References 474 19 Weight, Balance, and Trim 477 19.1 Introduction 477 19.2 Airplane Weight De   nitions 477 19.3 Center of Gravity 481 19.4 Longitudinal Static Stability and Stabilizer Trim 485 19.5 Center of Gravity Control 490 19.6 Operational Weights and Dispatch Procedures 491 19.7 Performance Implications 494 References 496 20 Limitations and Flight Envelope 497 20.1 Introduction 497 20.2 Stall 497 20.3 High-Speed Bu   et 502 20.4 Altitude   Speed Limitations 505 20.5 Key Regulatory Speeds 507 20.6 Structural Design Loads and Limitations 510 20.7 V   n Diagram (Flight Load Envelope) 512 References 520 21 Noise and Emissions 523 21.1 Introduction 523 21.2 Airplane Noise 523 21.3 Noise Regulations and Restrictions 526 21.4 Noise Abatement and Flight Operations 530 21.5 Airplane Emissions 532 21.6 Mitigating the E   ects of Airplane Emissions 537 References 540 22 Airplane Systems and Performance 543 22.1 Introduction 543 22.2 Reliability Requirements for Airplane Systems 543 22.3 Cabin Pressurization System 544 22.4 Environmental Control System 548 22.5 De-Icing and Anti-Icing Systems 549 22.6 Auxiliary Power System 550 22.7 Fuel and Fuel Systems 551 References 559 23 Authorities, Regulations, and Documentation 563 23.1 Introduction 563 23.2 International Civil Aviation Organization 563 23.3 Aviation Authorities 565 23.4 Regulations, Certi   cation, and Operations 567 23.5 Safety Investigation Authorities 571 23.6 Non-Governmental Organizations 572 23.7 Airplane and Flight Crew Documentation 573 23.8 Airplane Performance Data 577 References 578 A International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) Table 583 B Units and Conversion Factors 591 C Coordinate Systems and Conventions 597 D Miscellaneous Derivations 601 E Trim and Longitudinal Static Stability 613 F Regulations (Fuel Policy) 627 G Abbreviations and Nomenclature 629 Index 645