Pediatric Dentistry (Textbooks in Contemporary Dentistry)

Contents
Contributors
1: Pediatric Dentistry: Past, Present, and Future
	1.1	 Brief Historical Overview
	1.2	 Child Oral Health. Inequalities and the Dental Services
		1.2.1	 Trends in Pediatric Dentistry in the Future
	1.3	 Addressing Children’s Rights
	1.4	 Breadth of Knowledge in Pediatric Dentistry
	References
2: Child Cognitive Development: Building Positive Attitudes toward Dentists and Oral Health
	2.1	 The Dentist’s Long-Term Goal for Pediatric Patients and an Introduction to Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
		2.1.1	 Sensorimotor Stage
		2.1.2	 Preoperational Stage
		2.1.3	 Concrete Operational Stage
		2.1.4	 Formal Operational Thought
	2.2	 Using Memory Principles to Help Prevent the Development of Fear
	2.3	 Tailoring Oral Messages to the Individual Patient
	References
3: Pediatric Body Growth
	3.1	 Normal Growth
		3.1.1	 Growth Phases
			3.1.1.1	 Prenatal Growth
			3.1.1.2	 Infantile Growth
			3.1.1.3	 Growth in Childhood
			3.1.1.4	 Pubertal Growth
		3.1.2	 Growth Evaluation
			3.1.2.1	 Weight and Height Measurement
			3.1.2.2	 Growth Velocity
			3.1.2.3	 Midparental Height or Target Height
			3.1.2.4	 Bone Age
			3.1.2.5	 Dental Age
	3.2	 Growth Disorders
		3.2.1	 Intrauterine Growth Retardation and Small for Gestational Age Newborns
		3.2.2	 Short Stature
		3.2.3	 Tall Stature
	3.3	 Puberty
		3.3.1	 Disorders of Puberty
			3.3.1.1	 Precocious Puberty
			3.3.1.2	 Delayed Puberty
	References
4: Child Dental Fear, Communication and Cooperation
	4.1	 Child Misbehavior
	4.2	 Fear Definitions and Prevalence
		4.2.1	 Definitions of Dental Fear, Anxiety, and Phobia
		4.2.2	 Relationship between Child Misbehavior and Fear
	4.3	 Etiologies of Dental Fear
		4.3.1	 Classical Conditioning
		4.3.2	 Social Learning Theory
		4.3.3	 Cognitive
		4.3.4	 Feelings of Helplessness and Loss of Control
		4.3.5	 Genetic
		4.3.6	 Family Stressors
		4.3.7	 Temperament
		4.3.8	 Parenting Style and Other Parenting Factors
		4.3.9	 Parental Dental Fear
	4.4	 Measuring Dental Fear
		4.4.1	 Self-Report Measures
		4.4.2	 Behavior Rating Scale
	4.5	 Relationships between the Pain Threshold, Fear, and the Experience of Pain
		4.5.1	 Providing Children with Information about What Will Happen
		4.5.2	 Dental Visits that Do Not Involve Invasive Procedures
		4.5.3	 Impact of Treatment Aspects on the Child’s Sense of Loss of Control
	4.6	 Self-Management of Fear
		4.6.1	 The Importance of Age and Maturity
		4.6.2	 Child Crying and Coping Behavior
		4.6.3	 Therapeutic Management of Fear (Desensitization)
	4.7	 Special Issues with Adolescents
		4.7.1	 Respond to Requests for Privacy
		4.7.2	 Adolescents May Resist Going to the Dentist
	4.8	 Communication in the Dental Environment
		4.8.1	 Nonverbal Communication between the Dentist and the Child Patient
		4.8.2	 Verbal Communication between the Dentist and the Child Patient
		4.8.3	 Communication with Parents
		4.8.4	 Communication with the Child
		4.8.5	 Providing Written Information
			Dental Office Logo
		4.8.6	 Empathy and Communication
	4.9	 The Influence of the Dental Environment
		4.9.1	 Provide Positive Stimuli before the Initial Visit
		4.9.2	 Have Welcoming Reception, Staff and Waiting Areas
	References
5: Behavior Guidance and Communicative Management
	5.1	 Definitions and Classification
		5.1.1	 Classification of Behavior Guidance and Management Techniques
			5.1.1.1	 Basic
			5.1.1.2	 Advanced
	5.2	 Basic Behavior Guidance
		5.2.1	 Tell-Show-Do
		5.2.2	 Providing Control
		5.2.3	 Ask-Tell-Ask
		5.2.4	 Positive Reinforcement
		5.2.5	 Distraction
		5.2.6	 Modeling
		5.2.7	 Voice Control
		5.2.8	 Parental Presence
			5.2.8.1	 Parental Presence/Absence as a Behavior Shaping Technique
		5.2.9	 Other Complementary Techniques
	5.3	 Advanced Behavior Guidance
		5.3.1	 Protective Stabilization
		5.3.2	 Dealing with Demanding Behavior Problems
			5.3.2.1	 Intense Fear of Dental Injection
			5.3.2.2	 Intense Gag Reflex
			5.3.2.3	 Emotional` Immaturity and Language Problems
	5.4	 Ethical and Legal Issues and Parental Consent
	References
6: Examination, Diagnosis, and Treatment Plan Implementation
	6.1	 Examination and Diagnostic Process
		6.1.1	 History Taking
			6.1.1.1	 Family and Social History
			6.1.1.2	 Medical History
			6.1.1.3	 Dental History
		6.1.2	 Clinical Examination
			6.1.2.1	 Extraoral Examination
			6.1.2.2	 Intraoral Examination
			6.1.2.3	 Soft Tissue Examination
			6.1.2.4	 Examination of Periodontal Tissues
			6.1.2.5	 Examination of Hard Dental Tissues
			6.1.2.6	 Examination of Dental Occlusion
			6.1.2.7	 First Dental Examination and Recalls
		6.1.3	 Radiographic Examination
			6.1.3.1	 Examination with Intraoral Radiographs
				Imaging Techniques
				Image Detectors
				Image Detector Holders
				Collimation and Protective Aprons or Shields
				Bitewing Radiography
				Periapical Radiography
				Occlusal (Standard and Oblique) Radiography
			6.1.3.2	 Examination with Extraoral Radiographs
				Panoramic Radiography
				Cephalometric Radiography
				Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT)
				Oblique Lateral Radiography
	6.2	 Implementing a Total Care Treatment Plan
		6.2.1	 Presentation of the Treatment Plan to Parents
		6.2.2	 Factors Affecting the Progress of the Treatment Plan
		6.2.3	 Referral to a Pediatric Dentist
	References
7: Local Anesthesia in Pediatric Dentistry
	7.1	 Equipment and Factors Relating to Local Anesthesia
		7.1.1	 Topical Anesthetics
		7.1.2	 Injectors and Needles
		7.1.3	 Types of Local Anesthetics – Dosage
		7.1.4	 Vasoconstrictors
		7.1.5	 Rate or Speed of Injected Solution
		7.1.6	 Temperature of Injected Solution
		7.1.7	 Local Anesthesia Using Alternative Kinds of Injectors
			7.1.7.1	 Computer-Controlled Administering of Anesthetic Solution
			7.1.7.2	 Anesthesia without Use of Needle – Jet Anesthetic Technique
	7.2	 Main Local Anesthesia Techniques
		7.2.1	 Topical Local Anesthesia
		7.2.2	 Main Local Anesthesia Techniques with Infiltration in Free Mucosa
			7.2.2.1	 Local Infiltration Anesthesia
			7.2.2.2	 Inferior Alveolar Nerve Block Anesthesia
		7.2.3	 Main Palatal Anesthesia
			7.2.3.1	 Anterior Middle Superior Alveolar Nerve Block (AMSA)
			7.2.3.2	 Nasopalatine Nerve Block
			7.2.3.3	 Palatal Anterior Superior Alveolar Block (P-ASA)
		7.2.4	 Injection within the Bone
			7.2.4.1	 Intraseptal Anesthesia
			7.2.4.2	 Intraosseous Anesthesia
		7.2.5	 Other Anesthesia
			7.2.5.1	 Intraligamental Anesthesia
			7.2.5.2	 Intrapulpal Anesthesia
	7.3	 Behavior Guidance for the Administering of Local Anesthesia
		7.3.1	 Preparing the Child
		7.3.2	 Administration of Local Anesthesia
	7.4	 Complications of Local Anesthesia
		7.4.1	 Local Complications
			7.4.1.1	 Needle Breakage
			7.4.1.2	 Pain and Sense of Burning
			7.4.1.3	 Paresthesia
			7.4.1.4	 Cheek, Lip, or Tongue Injury
			7.4.1.5	 Edema
			7.4.1.6	 Hematoma
			7.4.1.7	 Trismus
			7.4.1.8	 Reaction to Vasoconstrictors
		7.4.2	 Systemic Complications
	References
8: Pharmacologic Behavior Management (Sedation – General Anesthesia)
	8.1	 Sedation
		8.1.1	 Indications
			8.1.1.1	 Special Considerations in the Pediatric Patient
			8.1.1.2	 Assessment of Health Status and Cooperation
			8.1.1.3	 Preparation of Child and Parent for Sedation and Informed Consent
		8.1.2	 Sedation Procedures
			8.1.2.1	 General Prerequisites
			8.1.2.2	 Monitoring and Resuscitation Equipment (General Recommendations)
			8.1.2.3	 Documentation before and during Sedation
	8.2	 Minimal Sedation (Anxiolysis) and Moderate (Conscious) Sedation
		8.2.1	 Inhalation Sedation with Nitrous Oxide/Oxygen Mixture
			8.2.1.1	 Stages of Anesthesia
				Relative Analgesia and Planes of Analgesia
			8.2.1.2	 Administration Technique
				Titrating Gases for Sedation
			8.2.1.3	 Monitoring
			8.2.1.4	 Contraindications
			8.2.1.5	 Adverse Effects
			8.2.1.6	 Personnel Safety in Dental Surgery
			8.2.1.7	 Use of Nitrous Oxide/Oxygen Sedation in the COVID-19 Era
		Box
		8.2.2	 Moderate Sedation with Other Drugs
			8.2.2.1	 Benzodiazepines
			8.2.2.2	 Other Drugs and Combination
		Clinical Case Presentation – Comprehensive Dental Treatment Under Sedation with a Combination of Oral and Inhaled Drugs in a Pediatric ­Hospital-Based Dental Clinic
	8.3	 General Anesthesia
		8.3.1	 Preoperative Evaluation and Admission to Hospital
		8.3.2	 Induction of Anesthesia and Dental Treatment
			8.3.2.1	 Preparation of the Dental Team for Operating Room Procedures
			8.3.2.2	 Induction of General Anesthesia
			8.3.2.3	 Dental Treatment
		Clinical Case Presentation – Oral Rehabilitation Under GA
	8.4	 Safety Concerns About Sedation or General Anesthesia
	References
9: Growth of the Craniofacial Complex
	9.1	 Introduction
		9.1.1	 The Changing Features of the Growing Face
	9.2	 Prenatal Facial Growth and Development
	9.3	 Concepts of the Growth Process
	9.4	 Bone and Cartilage
	9.5	 Growth of the Neurocranium
		9.5.1	 The Calvaria
		9.5.2	 The Basicranium
	9.6	 Growth of the Nasomaxillary Complex
		9.6.1	 The Maxillary Tuberosity and Arch Lengthening
		9.6.2	 Palatal Remodeling and Alveolar Development
		9.6.3	 Downward Maxillary Displacement
	9.7	 Growth of the Mandible
		9.7.1	 The Ramus
		9.7.2	 The Lingual Tuberosity
		9.7.3	 The Mandibular Condyle
		9.7.4	 Ramus Uprighting
	9.8	 Cephalometrics
	9.9	 Normal Variations in Facial Form and the Anatomic Basis for Malocclusions
	References
10: Tooth Eruption, Shedding, Extraction and Related Surgical Issues
	10.1 The Physiology of Tooth Eruption
		10.1.1 Chronology and Sequence of Tooth Eruption
		10.1.2 Mechanism of Tooth Eruption
	10.2 Symptoms of Tooth Eruption
		10.2.1 Local Treatment of Teething Symptoms
		10.2.2 Systemic Treatment of Teething Symptoms
	10.3 Disturbances in Tooth Eruption
		10.3.1 Premature Tooth Eruption: Neonatal Teeth
		10.3.2 Delayed Tooth Eruption
			10.3.2.1 Generalized Delay in Tooth Eruption
			10.3.2.2 Localized Delay in Tooth Eruption
		10.3.3 Other Disturbances in Tooth Eruption
			10.3.3.1 Ectopic Eruption of Permanent Teeth
			10.3.3.2 Ankylosis of Primary Teeth
			10.3.3.3 Eruption Cysts
			10.3.3.4 Inflammation Related to Eruption of Teeth
	10.4 Shedding and Extraction
		10.4.1 Shedding of Primary Teeth
			10.4.1.1 Premature Shedding of Primary Teeth
		10.4.2 Extraction and Surgical Techniques Related to Eruption
			10.4.2.1 Extraction of Primary Teeth
			Managing Ankylosed Primary Molars
			10.4.2.2 Extraction of Structures Impeding Tooth Eruption
	10.5 Transplantation of Teeth
		10.5.1 Extraction and Re-implantation of Permanent Teeth
		10.5.2 Transplantation of Teeth Anteriorly
		10.5.3 Intentional Re-implantation
	References
11: Orthodontic Knowledge and Practice for the Pediatric Dentist
	11.1 General Perspectives in Orthodontic Management of Children and Adolescents
		11.1.1 Profile Evaluation
			11.1.1.1 Straight Profile
			11.1.1.2 Convex Profile
			11.1.1.3 Concave Profile
		11.1.2 Concluding Remarks on Profile Evaluation
	11.2 Age-Specific Perspectives in Orthodontic Management of Children and Adolescents
		11.2.1 Intervention in the Primary Dentition
			11.2.1.1 Arch Space Anomalies
			11.2.1.2 Occlusal Anomalies
				At the Vertical Plane
				At the Sagittal Plane
				At the Transverse Plane
		11.2.2 Intervention in the Mixed Dentition
			11.2.2.1 Arch Space Anomalies
				Crowding
			11.2.2.2 Mixed Dentition Analysis
			11.2.2.3 Dental Spacing
			11.2.2.4 Occlusal Anomalies
				At the Vertical Plane
				At the Sagittal Plane
				At the Transversal Plane
			11.2.2.5 Tooth Number and Eruption-Related Anomalies
				Ectopic Eruption of the First Permanent Molars and Canines
				Congenitally Missing and Supernumerary Teeth
				The Ankylosed Primary Molars
		11.2.3 Harmful Oral Habits
			11.2.3.1 Thumb-Sucking and Pacifier Overuse
			11.2.3.2 The Position of the Tongue at Swallowing
			11.2.3.3 Mouth Breathing
			11.2.3.4 Nail-Biting
			11.2.3.5 Lip Sucking
	References
12: Dental Caries Prevention in Children and Adolescents
	12.1 Dental Caries in Children and Adolescents
		12.1.1 Pathogenesis of Dental Caries
			12.1.1.1 The Physicochemical Process
			12.1.1.2 Caries Microbiology
			12.1.1.3 Other Caries Risk Factors
				Saliva
				Socioeconomic Status
				Tooth Morphology and Structure
				Tooth Arrangement in the Dental Arch
				Dental Appliances and Restorations
				Hereditary Factors
		12.1.2 Epidemiology and Treatment Needs
		12.1.3 Clinical Manifestation of Caries
			12.1.3.1 Severe Forms of Active Caries
			12.1.3.2 Arrested Caries
		12.1.4 Caries Diagnosis and Record Keeping
			12.1.4.1 Diagnostic Techniques, Tools, and Appliances
			12.1.4.2 Relationship of Clinical, Radiographic, and Histological Examinations
			12.1.4.3 Detection of Early Caries
			12.1.4.4 Alternative Diagnostic Technologies for Carious Lesions
				Digital Image Fiber-Optic Trans-illumination (DIFOTI)
				Fluorescence Techniques
					Laser/Light Fluorescence
					Quantitative Light-Induced Fluorescence (QLF)
				Digital Radiography
					CCD Technology
					SPP Technology
		12.1.5 Caries Risk and Treatment Strategies
			12.1.5.1 Caries Risk Assessment
			12.1.5.2 Presence of Extrinsic Black Stains
			12.1.5.3 The Treatment Strategy of Caries
	12.2 Therapeutic Measures for Caries Control
		12.2.1 Fluorides and Medicinal Means
			12.2.1.1 Fluoride
				Mechanism of Action
				Systemic Fluoride
					Water Fluoridation
					Milk Fluoridation
					Salt Fluoridation
					Fluoride Tablets and Drops
				Topical Fluorides
					Home Use
						Toothpaste
						Fluoride Rinses
					Professional Application
						Fluoride Gels and Varnishes
						Silver Diamine Fluoride
				Fluoride Toxicity
					Acute Fluoride Toxicity
					Chronic Exposure to Fluoride: Dental Fluorosis
			12.2.1.2 Other Alleged Anticaries Agents
				Casein
				Chlorhexidine
				Xylitol
				Probiotics
		12.2.2 Dental Plaque Removal
			12.2.2.1 Toothbrushing
				Toothbrushes and Brushing Techniques
				Timing, Frequency, and Duration of Brushing
			12.2.2.2 Dental Floss and Interdental Brushes
		12.2.3 Pit and Fissure Sealants
			12.2.3.1 Sealant Placement Procedure
			12.2.3.2 Recommendations for Use and Efficacy
		12.2.4 The Diet
		12.2.5 Patient Motivation and Recalls
			12.2.5.1 Patient Motivation
			12.2.5.2 Recall Visit
	References
13: Restoration of Carious Hard Dental Tissues
	13.1 Age up to 3 Years
		13.1.1 Early Childhood Caries
			13.1.1.1 Prevalence and Prevention
			13.1.1.2 Treatment and Restorations
		13.1.2 Atraumatic Restorative Treatment
	13.2 Age 3 to 6 Years
		13.2.1 Primary Molar Restorations
		13.2.2 Preformed Metal Crowns (PMC)
			13.2.2.1 Fitting Procedure
		13.2.3 Restoring Anterior Primary Teeth
	13.3 Age 6 to 12 Years
		13.3.1 Pit and Fissure Caries
			13.3.1.1 Preventive Resin Restoration (PRR)
		13.3.2 Proximal Surfaces of Permanent Teeth
			13.3.2.1	 Permanent First Molars
			13.3.2.2 Permanent Incisors
		13.3.3 Excessively Carious Permanent Molars
	13.4 Age 12 to 18 Years
		13.4.1	 Proximal and Smooth Surface Caries
		13.4.2 Class II Cavities
	13.5 Isolating the Working Field by Rubber Dam
		13.5.1 Equipment
		13.5.2 Preparation and Placement
		13.5.3 Alternative Options for Isolation
	13.6 Restorative Materials in Pediatric Dentistry
		13.6.1 Cavity Matrices
		13.6.2 Cavity Lining/Base Materials
		13.6.3 Enamel and Dentin Adhesives
		13.6.4 Glass-Ionomer Cements
		13.6.5 Resin-Based Composites
			13.6.5.1 Polyacid-Modified Resin Composites
			13.6.5.2 Safety of Resin Biomaterials
		13.6.6 Dental Amalgam
		13.6.7 Preformed Crowns
			13.6.7.1	 Primary Teeth
			13.6.7.2 Permanent Teeth
		13.6.8 Veneers and Prosthetic Appliances
	13.7 Restoration Failure and Contemporary Research
		13.7.1	 Failure and Repair of Restorations
		13.7.2 Improving the Dental Materials
	References
14: Pulp Therapy in Pediatric Dentistry
	14.1 Diagnosing Pulp Pathology of the Primary Tooth: Managing the Emergencies
		14.1.1 Diagnostic Procedure
			14.1.1.1 Medical History
			14.1.1.2 Dental History
			14.1.1.3 Clinical Examination
				Cavity Size
				Edema
				Mobility
				Percussion
				Vitality Tests
			14.1.1.4 Radiographic Examination
				Root Canal Obliteration
				Internal Root Resorption
				External Root Resorption
				Bone Radiolucency
				Depth of Carious Lesion
		14.1.2 Management of Pulp-Related Emergency
			14.1.2.1 Antimicrobial Medication in Emergency Cases
			Description of an Emergency Case
	14.2 Treatment of Pulp Pathology in Primary Teeth
		14.2.1 Indirect Pulp Capping of Primary Teeth
			14.2.1.1 Technique
			14.2.1.2 Materials
			14.2.1.3 Effectiveness
		14.2.2 Direct Pulp Capping of Primary Teeth
			14.2.2.1 Technique
			14.2.2.2 Materials
				Calcium Hydroxide
				Mineral Trioxide Aggregate (MTA)
				Other Materials Under Investigation
			14.2.2.3 Effectiveness
		14.2.3 Primary Molar Pulpotomy
			14.2.3.1 Technique
			14.2.3.2 Materials and Effectiveness of Pulpotomy
				Mineral Trioxide Aggregate
				Formocresol
				Ferric Sulfate
				Other Techniques and Medications
		14.2.4 Pulpectomy/Root Canal Treatment of Primary Teeth
			14.2.4.1 Technique
			14.2.4.2 Root Canal Filling Materials and Effectiveness
	14.3 Pulp Treatment of Young Carious Permanent Teeth
		14.3.1 Indirect Pulp Capping
		14.3.2 Direct Pulp Capping
		14.3.3 Partial Pulpotomy and Cervical Pulpotomy
		14.3.4 Root Canal Treatment of Immature Carious Teeth
			14.3.4.1 Apexification
			14.3.4.2 Revascularization
		14.3.5 Restoring the Color of Discolored Teeth
	References
15: Periodontal Diseases in Children and Adolescents
	15.1 Diseases Restricted to Gingiva
		15.1.1 Gingivitis
			15.1.1.1 Definition, Epidemiology, and Clinical Findings
			15.1.1.2 Microbiological and Histological Findings
			15.1.1.3 Etiology and Treatment
		15.1.2 Localized Juvenile Spongiotic Hyperplasia
		15.1.3 Gingival Hyperplasia
			15.1.3.1 Drug-Related Gingival Hyperplasia
			15.1.3.2 Congenital Fibrous Gingival Hyperplasia
	15.2 Periodontitis
		15.2.1 Chronic Periodontitis in Children and Adolescents
			15.2.1.1 Clinical, Microbiological, and Immunological Findings
			15.2.1.2 Treatment
		15.2.2 Periodontitis Associated with Systemic Disease
		15.2.3 Diabetes Mellitus and Periodontal Disease
		15.2.4 Acute Ulcerative Gingivitis/Periodontitis
	15.3 Mucogingival Deformities
		15.3.1 Gingival Recession
		15.3.2 Frenum Pull
	References
16: Dentoalveolar Trauma of Children and Adolescents
	16.1 Introduction to Dentoalveolar Trauma
		16.1.1 Classification
		16.1.2 Epidemiology
			16.1.2.1 Primary Teeth
			16.1.2.2 Permanent Teeth
		16.1.3 Etiology of Dental Trauma
			16.1.3.1 Primary Teeth
			16.1.3.2 Permanent Teeth
		16.1.4 Examination: Diagnosis
			16.1.4.1 Medical History
			16.1.4.2 Dental Trauma History
			16.1.4.3 Extraoral Examination
			16.1.4.4 Intraoral Examination
			16.1.4.5 Radiographic Examination
	16.2 Dental Trauma to Primary Teeth
		16.2.1 Fractures of Primary T
			16.2.1.1 Enamel Infraction, Enamel-Dentine Crown Fracture Without Pulp Exposure
			16.2.1.2 Crown Fracture with Pulp Exposure
			16.2.1.3 Crown-Root Fracture
			16.2.1.4 Root Fracture
		16.2.2 Luxation Injuries to Primary Teeth
			16.2.2.1 Concussion
			16.2.2.2 Subluxation (Loosening)
			16.2.2.3 Lateral Luxation
			16.2.2.4 Intrusive Luxation
			16.2.2.5 Extrusive Luxation
			16.2.2.6 Avulsion
			16.2.2.7 Alveolar Bone Fracture
		16.2.3 Follow-Up and Complications of Trauma to Primary Teeth
			16.2.3.1 Pulpitis
			16.2.3.2 Discoloration of the Traumatized Tooth
			16.2.3.3 Pulp Canal Obliteration
			16.2.3.4 Pulp Necrosis
			16.2.3.5 Root Resorption
		16.2.4 Consequences of Primary Tooth Trauma to Their Permanent Successors
			16.2.4.1 White or Yellow-Brown Spots on the Enamel
			16.2.4.2 Enamel Hypoplasia
			16.2.4.3 Crown Dilaceration
			16.2.4.4 Other Rare Developmental Disorders
			16.2.4.5 Consequences to Permanent Tooth Eruption
	16.3 Dental Trauma to Permanent Teeth
		16.3.1 Fractures of Permanent Teeth
			16.3.1.1 Enamel Infraction
			16.3.1.2 Complete Enamel Fracture
			16.3.1.3 Enamel-Dentine Fracture Without Pulp Exposure (Uncomplicated Crown Fracture)
			16.3.1.4 Enamel-Dentine Fracture with Pulp Exposure (Complicated Crown Fracture)
			16.3.1.5 Crown-Root Fracture
			16.3.1.6 Root Fracture
		16.3.2 Luxation Injuries to Permanent Teeth
			16.3.2.1 Concussion
			16.3.2.2 Subluxation (Loosening)
			16.3.2.3 Lateral Luxation
			16.3.2.4 Intrusive Luxation
			16.3.2.5 Extrusive Luxation
			16.3.2.6 Avulsion
				Emergency Treatment of an Avulsed Tooth
					Mature Teeth (Closed Apex)
					Immature Teeth (Open Apex)
		16.3.3 Post-traumatic Complications of Permanent Teeth
			16.3.3.1 Pulp Canal Obliteration
			16.3.3.2 Pulp Necrosis
			16.3.3.3 Root Resorption
		16.3.4 Follow-Ups of Injured Permanent Teeth
		16.3.5 Endodontic Evaluation and Management of Injured Permanent Teeth
			16.3.5.1 Pulp Status Evaluation and Diagnosis Following Trauma
			16.3.5.2 Keeping the Pulp Alive and Favoring Spontaneous Pulp Space Revascularization
			16.3.5.3 Endodontic Treatment of Necrotic Teeth
	16.4 Prognosis of Injured Teeth
	16.5 Orthodontic Management of the Traumatized Dentition
	16.6 Prevention of Dentoalveolar Trauma
		16.6.1 Mouth-guards
	References
17: Developmental Defects of the Teeth and Their Hard Tissues
	17.1 Disturbances in Tooth Number, Size, and Morphology
		17.1.1	 A Short Introduction to Dental Development
		17.1.2	 Causes of Disturbances and Correlations with Overall Health
		17.1.3	 Clinical Expression of Disturbances and their Treatment
			17.1.3.1	 Variations in Tooth Number: Epidemiology and Clinical Phenotypes
			17.1.3.2	 Variations in Size, Shape, and Morphology of Teeth
	17.2 Malformations of Dental Tissue Structure
		17.2.1	 The Structure of Enamel, Dentin, and Cementum
			17.2.1.1	 Mineralization Chronology of the Teeth
		17.2.2	 Clinical and Histological Appearance, Etiology, and Diagnosis
			17.2.2.1	 Developmental Dental Defects with Environmental Origin
			17.2.2.2	 Enamel Dysplasias Related to Diseases or Drugs
			17.2.2.3	 Dental Defects with Genetic Background
			17.2.2.4	 Dental Defects Unclassified as to Etiology
			17.2.2.5	 Systemic Diseases and Syndromes with Dental Defects
	17.3 Developmental Discoloration of Dental Tissues
	17.4 Conclusion
	References
18: Tooth Wear in Children and Adolescents
	18.1	 Various Types of Tooth Wear
		18.1.1	 Attrition and Abrasion
		18.1.2	 Erosive Tooth Wear
	18.2	 Tooth Wear and Bruxism in Children
	18.3	 Dental Erosion
		18.3.1	 Prevalence and Severity
		18.3.2	 Aetiology of Dental Erosion
			18.3.2.1	 Extrinsic Factors
			18.3.2.2	 Intrinsic Factors
		18.3.3	 Examination and Diagnosis
		18.3.4	 Prevention of Erosion
		18.3.5	 Restoration of Erosive Lesions
	References
19: Temporomandibular Disorders in Children and Adolescents
	19.1	 The Orofacial System: Principles of Occlusion and Function
		19.1.1	 Centric Positions of the Lower Jaw and Temporomandibular Joint
			19.1.1.1	 Maximum Intercuspation
			19.1.1.2	 Centric Relation/Centric Occlusion
		19.1.2	 Rest Position
		19.1.3	 Eccentric Positions
		19.1.4	 Eccentric Mandibular Movements
		19.1.5	 Vertical Dimension in Occlusion
	19.2	 Disorders of the Orofacial System
		19.2.1	 Epidemiology
		19.2.2	 Etiology
			19.2.2.1	 Bruxism
			19.2.2.2	 Does Malocclusion Cause TMD?
			19.2.2.3	 Does TMD Cause Malocclusion?
			19.2.2.4	 TMD and Orthodontics
		19.2.3	 Anamnestic Records
		19.2.4	 Clinical Examination
		19.2.5	 Imaging
		19.2.6	 Diagnosis
		19.2.7	 Treatment Strategies
	19.3	 Summary
	References
20: Oral Lesions in Children and Adolescents
	20.1 Common Oral Mucosal and Bony Abnormalities
		20.1.1	 Erythema Migrans (Geographic Tongue)
		20.1.2	 Palatal Torus (Torus Palatinus)
		20.1.3	 Mandibular Torus (Torus Mandibularis)
		20.1.4	 Cysts
	20.2 Reactive Overgrowths
		20.2.1	 Pyogenic Granuloma
		20.2.2	 Fibroepithelial Polyp
		20.2.3	 Peripheral Ossifying Fibroma
		20.2.4	 Peripheral Giant Cell Lesion
		20.2.5	 Congenital Granular Cell Tumor (Congenital Epulis of the Neonates)
		20.2.6	 Other Swellings
	20.3 Vascular Malformations (Hamartomas)
		20.3.1	 Hemangioma
		20.3.2	 Lymphangioma
	20.4 Oral Ulceration
		20.4.1	 Traumatic Oral Ulceration
			20.4.1.1	 Riga-Fede Disease and Riga-Fede Granuloma
			20.4.1.2	 Chronic Mucosal Biting
		20.4.2	 Aphthous Ulceration and Related Disease
			20.4.2.1	 Systemic Autoinflammatory Disorders
		20.4.3	 Oral Ulceration Secondary to Systemic Disease of Childhood
			20.4.3.1	 Gastrointestinal Disease
			20.4.3.2	 Crohn’s Disease
			20.4.3.3	 Gluten-Sensitive Enteropathy (Coeliac Disease)
	20.5 Infectious Diseases in Childhood
		20.5.1	 Viral Infections
			20.5.1.1	 Herpes Simplex
			20.5.1.2	 Herpes Zoster (Varicella Zoster)
			20.5.1.3	 Infectious Mononucleosis
			20.5.1.4	 Hand Foot and Mouth Disease
			20.5.1.5	 Herpangina
			20.5.1.6	 Measles
			20.5.1.7	 Mumps
			20.5.1.8	 Human Papilloma Virus Infections
			20.5.1.9	 Common Warts (Verruca Vulgaris, Squamous Papilloma)
			20.5.1.10	 Multifocal Epithelial Hyperplasia (MEH, Heck’s Disease)
			20.5.1.11	 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
		20.5.2	 Bacterial Infections
			20.5.2.1	 Impetigo
			20.5.2.2	 Scarlet Fever
			20.5.2.3	 Tuberculosis
			20.5.2.4	 Acute Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis
			20.5.2.5	 Other Bacterial Infections
		20.5.3	 Fungal Infections
			20.5.3.1	 Pseudomembranous Candidiasis (Thrush)
	20.6 Mucocutaneous Disease
		20.6.1	 Erythema Multiforme
		20.6.2	 Allergic Reactions
		20.6.3	 Other Mucocutaneous Disease
	20.7 Hematological Disease
		20.7.1	 Hematological Malignancies
			20.7.1.1	 Lymphomas
			20.7.1.2	 Hodgkin’s Disease
			20.7.1.3	 Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
			20.7.1.4	 Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis
				Eosinophilic Granuloma
				Hand-Schüller-Christian Disease
				Letterer-Siwe Disease
			20.7.1.5	 Leukemia
		20.7.2	 Disorders of Blood Cells
			20.7.2.1	 Anemia
			20.7.2.2	 Thalassemia
			20.7.2.3	 Sickle Cell Disease
			20.7.2.4	 Neutropenia
		20.7.3	 Bleeding Disorders
			20.7.3.1	 Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia (HHT, Osler-Weber-Rendu Syndrome)
			20.7.3.2	 Thrombocytopenia
			20.7.3.3	 Coagulopathies
				Hemophilia A
				Hemophilia B (“Christmas Disease”)
				von Willebrand’s Disease
	20.8 Salivary Gland Disease
		20.8.1	 Mucocele
		20.8.2	 Ranula
		20.8.3	 Sialolithiasis
		20.8.4	 Acute Suppurative Sialadenitis (Suppurative Parotitis, Bacterial Sialadenitis, Bacterial Parotitis)
		20.8.5	 Recurrent Parotitis of Childhood (Juvenile Recurrent Parotitis)
		20.8.6	 Xerostomia (Oral Dryness)
		20.8.7	 Drooling
	References
21: The Young Dental Patient with Systemic Disease
	21.1	 Neoplasms
		21.1.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		21.1.2	 Dental Care Protocol
	21.2	 Cardiovascular Diseases and Chemoprophylaxis
		21.2.1	 Microbial Endocarditis and Dental Care
		21.2.2	 Prevention Protocol for Dental Patients
	21.3	 Diabetes Mellitus
		21.3.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
	21.4	 Asthma
		21.4.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
	21.5	 Chronic Renal Failure
		21.5.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
	21.6	 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
		21.6.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
	21.7	 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis
		21.7.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
	References
22: Disabilities, Neuropsychiatric Disorders, and Syndromes in Childhood and Adolescence
	22.1 Introductory Comments
		22.1.1	 Access and Design of the Dental Practice
		22.1.2	 Prevalence and Preventive Care
		22.1.3	 Difficulties for the Dental Treatment of Special Needs Patients
	22.2 Patients with Disabilities
		22.2.1	 Cerebral Palsy and Physical Disability
			22.2.1.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		22.2.2	 Cognitive Developmental Disabilities
			22.2.2.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		22.2.3	 Sensory Disabilities
			22.2.3.1	 Visual Impairment (Blindness)
			22.2.3.2	 Dental Findings and Treatment
			22.2.3.3	 Hearing Problems (Deafness)
			22.2.3.4	 Dental Findings and Treatment
	22.3 Patients with Neuropsychiatric/Psychological Disorders
		22.3.1	 Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
			22.3.1.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		22.3.2	 Attention Deficit Disorders
			22.3.2.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		22.3.3	 Epilepsy
			22.3.3.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		22.3.4	 Disorders of Nutrition and Weight
			22.3.4.1	 Anorexia Nervosa
			22.3.4.2	 Bulimia
				Dental Findings and Treatment
			22.3.4.3	 Obesity
				Dental Findings and Treatment
	22.4 Diseases and Syndromes with Genetic Background
		22.4.1	 Down Syndrome
			22.4.1.1	 Clinical Features
			22.4.1.2	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		22.4.2	 Ectodermal Dysplasia
			22.4.2.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		22.4.3	 Cystic Fibrosis
			22.4.3.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		22.4.4	 Muscular Dystrophy
			22.4.4.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		22.4.5	 Familial Mediterranean Fever
			22.4.5.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		22.4.6	 Clefts
			22.4.6.1	 Dental Findings and Treatment
		22.4.7	 Osteogenesis Imperfecta
			22.4.7.1	 Bisphosphonates
			22.4.7.2	 Malocclusion
		22.4.8	 Other Syndromes and Craniofacial Anomalies
	References
23: Child-Centred Dentistry: Engaging and Protecting Children
	23.1	 Introduction
	23.2	 Oral Health-Related Quality of Life
		23.2.1	 Measures Used
	23.3	 Decision-Making and Consent
		23.3.1	 Involving Children in Clinical Decisions
		23.3.2	 Principles of Consent
	23.4	 Safeguarding
	23.5	 Service Evaluation
		23.5.1	 PROMs and PREMs
	23.6	 Oral Health Research and Ethics
		23.6.1	 The Rationale for Child Engagement
		23.6.2	 Methodological Considerations
		23.6.3	 Ethical Issues
	23.7	 Conclusion
	References
Index