Pathogenic Coronaviruses of Humans and Animals: SARS, MERS, COVID-19, and Animal Coronaviruses with Zoonotic Potential

Front Cover
Pathogenic Coronaviruses of Humans and Animals
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
List of figures
List of tables
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction
	1.1 Of viruses and men
		1.1.1 Coronaviruses of humans
		1.1.2 Factors affecting zoonotic transmission of coronaviruses
	1.2 A brief introduction to viruses
		1.2.1 Characteristics of viruses
		1.2.2 Overview of mutations and recombination in viruses
		1.2.3 Viruses and their host receptors
		1.2.4 Baltimore class IV viruses
		1.2.5 Viruses, diseases, and pandemics—victories and failures
		1.2.6 Vaccination—then and now
		1.2.7 Comparison of viruses, bacteria, and eukaryotic cells
	1.3 A brief introduction to the immune system
		1.3.1 Introduction to the innate immune system
		1.3.2 The cells of the innate immune system
		1.3.3 Introduction to the adaptive immune system
		1.3.4 The cells of the adaptive immune system
		1.3.5 Cytokines and chemokines
		1.3.6 Antibodies
	1.4 Introduction to coronaviruses
		1.4.1 Coronavirus genomic and subgenomic RNA
		1.4.2 Increasing genetic diversity by mutation and recombination in coronaviruses
		1.4.3 Production of recombinant, chimeric coronaviruses
		1.4.4 Coronaviruses’ structural proteins
		1.4.5 Coronaviruses’ nonstructural proteins
		1.4.6 A brief summary of the coronavirus life cycle
		1.4.7 Viral transmission
	1.5 Coronaviruses and disease
		1.5.1 Coronaviruses and respiratory disease
		1.5.2 Coronaviruses and central nervous system disease
		1.5.3 Other coronavirus disease manifestations
	1.6 Categories of coronaviruses
		1.6.1 Coronavirus genera
		1.6.2 Coronaviruses of animals and zoonotic disease potential
	1.7 Treatment of coronavirus diseases
		1.7.1 Chloroquine
		1.7.2 Nucleic acid analogs
		1.7.3 Traditional medicinal compounds
	1.8 Prevention of coronavirus infection
	References
2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 A brief overview of the 2002–2003 severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus outbreak
		2.1.2 Phases of the 2002–2003 outbreak
		2.1.3 “Wet Markets” and wild cats and dogs
		2.1.4 The severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus spike protein and its angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor
	2.2 The history of severe acute respiratory syndrome
	2.3 Severe acute respiratory syndrome—the disease
		2.3.1 An overview of severe acute respiratory syndrome
		2.3.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome and the respiratory system
			2.3.2.1 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-induced damage to the respiratory system
			2.3.2.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome and co-infection with other respiratory microbes
			2.3.2.3 Pulmonary fibrosis and wound healing
			2.3.2.4 SARS, coagulation, and extracellular matrix proteins
			2.3.2.5 The severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus N protein, transforming growth factor-β, and lung damage
		2.3.3 Severe acute respiratory syndrome and the cardiovascular system
		2.3.4 Severe acute respiratory syndrome and the skeletal system
		2.3.5 Severe acute respiratory syndrome and the digestive system
		2.3.6 Severe acute respiratory syndrome and the urinary system
		2.3.7 Severe acute respiratory syndrome and nervous system
		2.3.8 Severe acute respiratory syndrome and the endocrine system
		2.3.9 Severe acute respiratory syndrome, the reproductive system, and sex-related disease severity
	2.4 The causative virus
		2.4.1 An overview of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus
		2.4.2 Entry of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus into cells
		2.4.3 Viral polyproteins and proteases
		2.4.4 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and the ubiquitin-pathway
		2.4.5 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and the unfolded protein response
		2.4.6 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus open reading frame 8
		2.4.7 Severe acute respiratory syndrome and small non-coding RNAs
		2.4.8 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and bats
		2.4.9 Transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome between humans
		2.4.10 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus in the external environment
	2.5 The immune response
		2.5.1 Introduction to severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and the immune system
			2.5.1.1 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and leukocyte numbers
			2.5.1.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus, leukocytes, and lymphoid organs
		2.5.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and the adaptive immune response
			2.5.2.1 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and lymphocytes
			2.5.2.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and memory cells
			2.5.2.3 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and antibodies to the viral N and spike proteins
		2.5.3 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus, cytokines, and chemokines
		2.5.4 Severe acute respiratory syndrome and interferons
		2.5.5 The severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus E protein and the immune response
		2.5.6 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and the innate immune response
			2.5.6.1 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus, macrophages, and dendritic cells
			2.5.6.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and M1 and M2 macrophages
			2.5.6.3 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus, angiotensin converting enzyme, and angiotensin converting enzyme2
		2.5.7 Animal models and the immune response to severe acute respiratory syndrome
			2.5.7.1 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and the immune response of nonhuman primates
			2.5.7.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and the immune response of mice
			2.5.7.3 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and nitric oxide in mice
			2.5.7.4 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and chemokines in mice
			2.5.7.5 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and Toll-like receptors in mice
			2.5.7.6 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and interferon in mice
		2.5.8 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and escape from the immune response
		2.5.9 Severe acute respiratory syndrome immunopathology
	2.6 Treatment options
	2.7 Diagnosis
	2.8 Prevention
		2.8.1 Physical means of prevention
			2.8.1.1 Personal protective equipment
			2.8.1.2 Hand hygiene and decontamination of infected surfaces
		2.8.2 Immunization
		2.8.3 Active immunization
			2.8.3.1 Introduction to severe acute respiratory syndrome-specific vaccines
			2.8.3.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and antibodies in vaccinated people
			2.8.3.3 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and T cell responses in vaccinated people
			2.8.3.4 Challenges in the development of anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus vaccines
	2.9 Surveillance
	References
3 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome
	3.1 Introduction to Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome and Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome coronavirus
		3.1.1 A brief introduction to Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome
		3.1.2 A brief Introduction to Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus
		3.1.3 Transmission of Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus to humans
			3.1.3.1 Zoonotic transmission via camel respiratory secretions
			3.1.3.2 Zoonotic transmission via camel milk and urine
			3.1.3.3 Human-to-human transmission of Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus
	3.2 The history
	3.3 The disease
		3.3.1 Introduction to Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome in humans
		3.3.2 The mortality rate of Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome
		3.3.3 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome and the respiratory system
		3.3.4 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome and the kidneys
		3.3.5 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome and the cardiovascular system
		3.3.6 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome and the nervous system
		3.3.7 Risk factors for Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome in humans
			3.3.7.1 Comorbidities as risk factors
			3.3.7.2 Coinfection with other microbes as risk factors
			3.3.7.3 Biological sex and occupation as risk factors
			3.3.7.4 The risk of Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus transmission to household contacts
			3.3.7.5 The risk of nosocomial transmission
	3.4 The causative virus
		3.4.1 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus classification
		3.4.2 Genetic variation in Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus
		3.4.3 DPP4 and the viral S protein in Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and Middle Eastern respiratory syndro...
			3.4.3.1 DPP4 and Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus in humans and dromedary camels
			3.4.3.2 DPP4 and Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-like coronaviruses in other animals
		3.4.4 Other molecules involved in Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus entry into its target cells
	3.5 Animal hosts of Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus
		3.5.1 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and bats as reservoir hosts
		3.5.2 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and dromedary camels
			3.5.2.1 Geographical location and prevalence of Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-infected dromedaries
			3.5.2.2 Bodily location and shedding of Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus by dromedary camels
			3.5.2.3 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome and dromedary calves and juveniles
			3.5.2.4 Risk factors for Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus infection in dromedaries
		3.5.3 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome and Bactrian camels
		3.5.4 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and other camelids
		3.5.5 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus in other agricultural animals
		3.5.6 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and other animals
		3.5.7 Animal models of Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome
	3.6 The immune response
		3.6.1 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome and T lymphocytes
		3.6.2 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome, B lymphocytes, and Antibodies
		3.6.3 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome, dendritic cells, monocytes/macrophages, and neutrophils
		3.6.4 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome, cytokines, and chemokines
		3.6.5 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome and interferons
		3.6.6 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus escape mechanisms
	3.7 Diagnosis
	3.8 Treatment
		3.8.1 Generalized, physical treatments
		3.8.2 Introduction to Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome drug treatment options
			3.8.2.1 Nucleoside analogs
			3.8.2.2 Immunosuppressive drugs
			3.8.2.3 Interferons
			3.8.2.4 Repurposed drugs
			3.8.2.5 Passive immunotherapy
	3.9 Traditional medicinal compounds
	3.10 Prevention
		3.10.1 Decontamination of environmental surfaces
		3.10.2 Vaccination
			3.10.2.1 Anti-Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome-coronavirus vaccines
			3.10.2.2 Recombinant viral vectors
			3.10.2.3 Vaccination of camelids
			3.10.2.4 Vaccinate, and vaccinate, and vaccinate again
			3.10.2.5 The best made vaccines for mice and monkeys
			3.10.2.6 Coronavirus vaccines: agony or victory?
	References
4 COVID-19
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and other human coronaviruses
		4.1.2 Number of cases, deaths, and vaccinations
		4.1.3 Spread of severe acute respiratory coronavirus-2
		4.1.4 Factors affecting determination of COVID-19 cases
		4.1.5 Unprepared
		4.1.6 Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 and animal hosts
	4.2 History
	4.3 The disease
		4.3.1 Introduction to COVID-19
		4.3.2 COVID-19 and the respiratory system
		4.3.3 COVID-19, smoking, and nicotine use
		4.3.4 COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system
			4.3.4.1 COVID-19 and the heart
			4.3.4.2 COVID-19 and the blood
		4.3.5 COVID-19, endothelial dysfunction, complement, and coagulation
			4.3.5.1 COVID-19 and endothelial dysfunction
			4.3.5.2 COVID-19 and complement
			4.3.5.3 COVID-19 and coagulation
		4.3.6 COVID-19 and neurological disease
		4.3.7 COVID and psychiatric disease
			4.3.7.1 COVID-19 and neurotransmitters and their receptors
			4.3.7.2 COVID-19, cytokines, and mental illness
		4.3.8 COVID-19 and special senses
			4.3.8.1 Olfaction and gustation
			4.3.8.2 Vision
		4.3.9 COVID-19 and the endocrine system
			4.3.9.1 COVID-19 and the adrenal gland
			4.3.9.2 COVID-19 and the thyroid
			4.3.9.3 COVID-19 and the pancreas
			4.3.9.4 COVID-19 and energy homeostasis
		4.3.10 COVID-19 and the urinary system
			4.3.10.1 COVID-19 and the kidneys
			4.3.10.2 COVID-19 and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
			4.3.10.3 COVID-19, the kidneys, lungs, and heart
		4.3.11 COVID-19 and the digestive system
		4.3.12 COVID-19 and the integumentary system
			4.3.12.1 COVID-19 and the skin
			4.3.12.2 COVID-19 and hair
		4.3.13 COVID-19 and biological sex
			4.3.13.1 COVID-19 and sex hormones
			4.3.13.2 COVID-19, ACE2, and TMPRSS2 in the reproductive system
			4.3.13.3 COVID-19 and the reproductive system in males
			4.3.13.4 COVID-19 effects on pregnant women and fetuses
		4.3.14 COVID-19 case number and severity in children and adults
		4.3.15 Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children
		4.3.16 Long COVID syndrome (chronic or post-COVID-19 syndrome)
		4.3.17 The role of genetic factors in COVID-19
	4.4 The causative virus
		4.4.1 Introduction to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2
		4.4.2 The question of the reservoir and intermediate hosts of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2
			4.4.2.1 Bats as reservoir hosts
			4.4.2.2 Pangolins as intermediate hosts
			4.4.2.3 Other animals as intermediate hosts
		4.4.3 Comparison of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2
		4.4.4 Transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2
		4.4.5 Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 mutations
	4.5 The immune response
		4.5.1 COVID-19 and the adaptive immune response
		4.5.2 COVID-19 immunopathology—IL-17 and the cytokine storm
		4.5.3 COVID-19 and the innate immune response
			4.5.3.1 Noncellular components of the innate immune response
			4.5.3.2 Evasion of the host immune response
			4.5.3.3 COVID-19 and cells of the innate immune system
			4.5.3.4 COVID-19 and monocytes/macrophages
			4.5.3.5 COVID-19 and myeloid-derived suppressor cells
			4.5.3.6 COVID-19 and dendritic cells
			4.5.3.7 COVID-19 and neutrophils
		4.5.4 COVID-19 and autoimmune disorders
	4.6 Diagnosis and surveillance
		4.6.1 RNA-based (genetic) tests
			4.6.1.1 Real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction
			4.6.1.2 Digital reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction
			4.6.1.3 Loop-mediated isothermal amplification and reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification
			4.6.1.4 Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats diagnostic
		4.6.2 Antibody-based (serological) tests for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 infection
			4.6.2.1 Introduction to antibody-based tests
			4.6.2.2 Rapid antigen detection tests
			4.6.2.3 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays
			4.6.2.4 Lateral-flow assays
			4.6.2.5 Nanoparticle-based assays
			4.6.2.6 Other antibody-antigen-based immunoassays
		4.6.3 Viral neutralization tests
		4.6.4 Surveillance
	4.7 Treatment
		4.7.1 Medications and monoclonal antibodies
			4.7.1.1 Nucleic acid analogs
			4.7.1.2 Anticoagulation agents
			4.7.1.3 Chloroquine and its derivatives
			4.7.1.4 Repurposed antimicrobial drugs
			4.7.1.5 Immunosuppressants
			4.7.1.6 Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-specific antibodies
			4.7.1.7 Combination therapy
			4.7.1.8 To use or not to use, that is the question
		4.7.2 Traditional medicinal compounds
	4.8 COVID-19, micronutrients, and vitamin D
		4.8.1 COVID-19 and zinc
		4.8.2 COVID-19 and copper
		4.8.3 COVID-19 and selenium
		4.8.4 COVID-19 and iron
		4.8.5 COVID-19 and vitamin D
	4.9 Prevention
		4.9.1 Rapid, mass scanning measures
		4.9.2 Personal protective equipment and social distancing
		4.9.3 Hand hygiene
		4.9.4 Decontamination of infected surfaces
		4.9.5 COVID-19, quarantine, and closure of businesses, schools, and recreational areas
		4.9.6 Natural immunity
			4.9.6.1 T lymphocyte responses
			4.9.6.2 B lymphocyte and neutralizing antibody responses
			4.9.6.3 The anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 immune response and viral variants
		4.9.7 Vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 infection
	References
	Further reading
5 Coronaviruses of wild and semidomesticated animals with the potential for zoonotic transmission
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Transmission of coronaviruses
		5.2.1 Genetic recombination between coronavirus animal hosts
		5.2.2 The viral spike protein and host coronavirus receptors
		5.2.3 Introduction to coronaviruses and intracellular signaling pathways
		5.2.4 Coronavirus vaccines
		5.2.5 Severe acute respiratory syndrome virus-2 and its animal hosts
	5.3 Coronaviruses of bats
		5.3.1 Introduction to bat coronaviruses
		5.3.2 WIV1, WIV16, SARS-CoV, and adaptation to different host species
		5.3.3 Chimeric bat coronaviruses and severe acute respiratory syndrome virus
		5.3.4 The spike protein of bat and human coronaviruses and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
		5.3.5 Bat Coronaviruses, MERS-CoV, and dipeptidyl peptidase IV
		5.3.6 Characteristics of coronavirus species of bats
		5.3.7 Prevention against bat coronavirus infection
	5.4 Coronaviruses of rodents
		5.4.1 Introduction to coronaviruses of rodents
		5.4.2 Mouse hepatitis virus
			5.4.2.1 Introduction to mouse hepatitis virus
			5.4.2.2 Mouse hepatitis virus and adaptive immunity in the central nervous system
			5.4.2.3 Mouse hepatitis coronavirus, interferon, and innate immunity
			5.4.2.4 Mouse hepatitis virus, the innate immune response, and the central nervous system
			5.4.2.5 Mouse hepatitis virus and the liver
			5.4.2.6 Treatment of mouse hepatitis virus infection
	5.5 Rat coronavirus
		5.5.1 Introduction to rat coronavirus
		5.5.2 Rat coronavirus and disease
		5.5.3 Rat coronavirus and the immune response
		5.5.4 Other coronaviruses of rodents
	5.6 Coronaviruses of nonhuman primates
		5.6.1 Introduction to coronaviruses of nonhuman primates
		5.6.2 Pathology of coronaviruses of nonhuman primates
	5.7 Coronaviruses of ferrets and minks
		5.7.1 Introduction to coronaviruses of ferrets and minks
		5.7.2 Ferret enteric coronavirus
		5.7.3 Ferret systemic coronavirus
		5.7.4 Treatment options and protection against ferret coronavirus-induced diseases
		5.7.5 Ferrets and feline infectious peritonitis virus of cats
		5.7.6 Coronaviruses of minks
		5.7.7 Coronaviruse of other musteloidea
	5.8 Coronaviruses of rabbits
		5.8.1 Rabbit enteric coronavirus
		5.8.2 Rabbit coronavirus
		5.8.3 Other rabbit coronaviruses
	5.9 Coronaviruses of other wild or semidomesticated mammals
	References
6 Coronaviruses of agricultural and companion animals with the potential for zoonotic transmission
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 Coronavirus genera and species
		6.1.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses-2, and domesticated ...
		6.1.3 MERS-CoV and domesticated animals
		6.1.4 Diagnosis of coronaviruses of domesticated animals
	6.2 Bovine coronavirus and its enteric and respiratory forms
		6.2.1 Introduction to bovine coronaviruses
		6.2.2 Pathology of bovine coronaviruses diseases and their underlying causes
		6.2.3 Bovine coronaviruses—the viruses
			6.2.3.1 The location and shedding of bovine coronaviruses
			6.2.3.2 The spike and hemagglutinin esterase proteins of bovine coronaviruses
			6.2.3.3 Bovine coronaviruses quasispecies and genetic recombination
			6.2.3.4 The immune response against bovine coronaviruses and vaccines
		6.2.4 Bovine enteric coronavirus
			6.2.4.1 Calf diarrhea
			6.2.4.2 Winter dysentery
			6.2.4.3 Colostrum and prevention of bovine enteric coronavirus
		6.2.5 Bovine respiratory coronavirus
			6.2.5.1 Introduction to bovine respiratory coronavirus
			6.2.5.2 Pathology due to bovine respiratory coronavirus
			6.2.5.3 The immune response to bovine respiratory coronavirus
			6.2.5.4 Prevention of bovine respiratory coronavirus infection
		6.2.6 Bovine coronaviruses-like coronaviruses of other animals
	6.3 Coronaviruses of dromedaries, llamas, and alpacas
		6.3.1 Coronaviruses of dromedary camels
			6.3.1.1 Dromedary camel alphacoronavirus
			6.3.1.2 Dromedary camel coronavirus DcCoV-HKU23
			6.3.1.3 Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in dromedaries
			6.3.1.4 Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus and Bactrian camels
		6.3.2 Coronaviruses of alpacas and llamas
			6.3.2.1 Middle East respiratory system coronavirus in alpacas and llamas
			6.3.2.2 Alpaca enteric coronavirus in alpacas and llamas
			6.3.2.3 Alpaca alphacoronavirus in alpacas and llamas
	6.4 Coronaviruses of swine
		6.4.1 Introduction to swine coronaviruses
		6.4.2 Pathology due to swine coronaviruses in general
		6.4.3 The immune response to swine coronaviruses in general
		6.4.4 Viral inhibition of the immune response to swine coronaviruses in general
		6.4.5 Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus
			6.4.5.1 Introduction to porcine epidemic diarrhea virus
			6.4.5.2 Pathology caused by porcine epidemic diarrhea virus
			6.4.5.3 Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus and the microbiome
			6.4.5.4 Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus—viral genogroups
			6.4.5.5 Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus transmission
			6.4.5.6 The spike protein and host cell receptor of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus
			6.4.5.7 The immune response to porcine epidemic diarrhea virus
			6.4.5.8 Vaccination against porcine epidemic diarrhea virus
		6.4.6 Porcine deltacoronavirus
			6.4.6.1 Introduction to porcine deltacoronavirus
			6.4.6.2 Pathology due to porcine deltacoronavirus
			6.4.6.3 Porcine delatcoronavirus—the virus
			6.4.6.4 Treatment of porcine deltacoronavirus
		6.4.7 Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus
			6.4.7.1 Introduction to porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus
			6.4.7.2 Pathology due to porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus
			6.4.7.3 Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus—the virus
			6.4.7.4 Protection against porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus
		6.4.8 Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus
			6.4.8.1 Introduction to swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus
			6.4.8.2 Pathology due to swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus
			6.4.8.3 Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus—the virus
		6.4.9 Transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine respiratory coronavirus
			6.4.9.1 Introduction to transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine respiratory coronavirus
			6.4.9.2 Pathology due to transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine respiratory coronavirus
			6.4.9.3 Transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine respiratory coronavirus—the viruses
			6.4.9.4 The immune response to transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine respiratory coronavirus
			6.4.9.5 Vaccines against transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine respiratory coronavirus
			6.4.9.6 Treatment of transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine respiratory coronavirus
	6.5 Coronavirus of horses
		6.5.1 Introduction to coronaviruses of horses
		6.5.2 Pathology due to coronavirus of horses
		6.5.3 Coronaviruses of horses—the virus
	6.6 Coronaviruses of sheep
	6.7 Coronaviruses of companion animals
		6.7.1 Coronaviruses of cats
			6.7.1.1 Introduction to feline coronaviruses
			6.7.1.2 Feline enteric coronavirus
			6.7.1.3 Introduction to feline infectious peritonitis virus
			6.7.1.4 Mutations and feline infectious peritonitis virus
			6.7.1.5 Pathology caused by feline coronaviruses serotypes I and II
			6.7.1.6 Feline coronaviruses, canine coronaviruses, and recombination
			6.7.1.7 Feline aminopeptidase N and feline coronavirus host range
			6.7.1.8 The immune response to feline coronaviruses
			6.7.1.9 Feline coronavirus and vaccination
			6.7.1.10 Treatment of feline coronavirus diseases
			6.7.1.11 SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and cats
		6.7.2 Canine coronaviruses
			6.7.2.1 Introduction to canine coronavirus
			6.7.2.2 Pathology due to canine coronavirus
			6.7.2.3 Canine coronavirus—the viruses
			6.7.2.4 Prevention of canine coronavirus infection
		6.7.3 Canine respiratory coronavirus
			6.7.3.1 Introduction to canine respiratory coronavirus
			6.7.3.2 Pathology due to canine respiratory coronavirus
			6.7.3.3 Canine respiratory coronavirus—the virus
			6.7.3.4 The immune response to canine respiratory coronavirus
	6.8 Brief overview of domestic avian coronaviruses
	References
7 Pulling it all together: where do we go from here?
	7.1 Coronaviruses—friends and family
		7.1.1 Baltimore class IV viruses (coronaviruses’ friends)
		7.1.2 Coronaviridae (coronaviruses family)
			7.1.2.1 Similarities of coronaviridae members
			7.1.2.2 Differences among coronaviridae members
	7.2 Zoonotic transmission of coronaviruses
		7.2.1 Coronaviruses proposed reservoir and intermediate hosts
			7.2.1.1 Severe acute respiratory system coronavirus—putative reservoir and intermediate hosts
			7.2.1.2 Middle Eastern respiratory system coronavirus—putative reservoir and intermediate hosts
			7.2.1.3 Severe acute respiratory system coronavirus-2—putative reservoir hosts
			7.2.1.4 Severe acute respiratory system coronavirus-2—putative intermediate hosts
		7.2.2 Comparison between the hosts and geographical locations of severe acute respiratorysyndrome coronavirus- and severe a...
		7.2.3 Other animals as potential coronavirus reservoir hosts
			7.2.3.1 Coronaviruses with zoonotic potential in birds
			7.2.3.2 Coronaviruses with zoonotic potential in rodents
			7.2.3.3 Genetic recombination between alphacoronaviruses and betacoronaviruses in rodents
			7.2.3.4 Coronaviruses with zoonotic potential in carnivores
	7.3 Possible ways to predict and prevent future epidemics and pandemics
		7.3.1 The One Health approach
		7.3.2 SpillOver
		7.3.3 Museums and emerging pathogens in the Americas (MEPA)
	7.4 Factors driving zoonotic transmission
		7.4.1 Viral factors driving zoonotic transmission
		7.4.2 Host-related factors driving zoonotic transmission
			7.4.2.1 Host cell receptors and immune responses
			7.4.2.2 Host body temperature and behaviors
		7.4.3 Environmental factors driving zoonotic transmission
		7.4.4 The “human factor” and modeling
		7.4.5 The emergence and disease severity of severe acute respiratory system coronavirus-2 variants
	7.5 The continuing threat of emerging infectious diseases
		7.5.1 Changes in infectious disease patterns over the last ten years
			7.5.1.1 Viruses
			7.5.1.2 Bacteria and other infectious disease agents
			7.5.1.3 General trends and prediction of infectious diseases between 2011–2022
			7.5.1.4 General trends in infectious diseases between 1940 and 2004
		7.5.2 The next pandemics—thinking outside of the box
			7.5.2.1 Plans for rapid responses to outbreaks and innovative solutions
			7.5.2.2 Dedicated infectious disease treatment centers
	7.6 Infectious diseases and the developing world
	7.7 Author’s note (March 2022)
	References
Appendix I: Coronavirus disease overviews
Appendix II: Glossary
Index
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