Pangasinan reference grammar

PANGASINAN REFERENCE GRAMMAR
PANGASINAN REFERENCE GRAMMAR
Foreword
Preface
Table of Contents
PHONOLOGY
PHONOLOGY
	Vowels
		Significant sounds
		Pangasinan vowel phonemes
		The phoneme /i/.
		The phoneme /E/.
		The phoneme /e/.
		The phoneme /a/.
		The phoneme /o/.
		Is there a phoneme /u/?
		General features of Pangasinan vowels.
		Pangasinan semivowels
	Consonants
		Pangasinan consonant phonemes
		Labial Consonants
		Dental Consonants
		Alveolar consonant
		Velar consonants
		Glottal consonant
		Consonant combinations
		Initial consonant clusters and phonemic /ch/.
		Medial clusters
		Agreement of nasals with following consonants.
		Nasal Replacement
	Stress and syllabification
		Initial consonant clusters
		Syllable types
		Syllabification within the word
		Stress
		Stress contrasts
	Intonation
		Characteristics of intonation patterns
		Critical points
		Relativity of pitch.
		Some basic Pangasinan intonation patterns
	Orthography
WORDS AND THEIR STRUCTURE
WORDS AND THEIR STRUCTURE
	Word roots, affixes, and word classes
		Kinds of root
		Types of affix
		Stems
		Word Classes
	Particles
		Topic marking particles
		Phonological changes
		Use of topic markers.
			Examples: (personal markers)
			Examples: (imay, irámay)
			Examples: (so)
		Articles
		Changes in phonological shape.
		Uses of Articles
			Examples:
		Si as an article.
			Example:
		Attributive and object (non-focus) markers
		Changes in phonological shape.
			Examples:
		Use of attributive/non-topic object markers.
			Examples: (attribution)
			Examples: (na marking object)
		Further uses of na.
		Referent markers
		Phonological changes
			Examples:
		Use of referent markers.
			Examples:
		Benefactive marker
			Examples:
		Identificational prepositions
			Examples:
		Temporal and conditional prepositions and  conjunctions
			Example:
			Example:
			Examples:
			Examples:
			Examples:
		The linker ya
			Examples:
		Displacement of linked phrase
			Examples:
		Other Conjunctions
			Examples:
			Examples:
			Examples:
			Examples:
	ADVERBS
		Negative adverbs
			Examples:
		Interrogative adverbs
			Examples:
		Optative adverbs
			Examples:
		Adverbs of certainty and uncertainty
			Examples:
		Adverbs of limitation
			Examples:
		Adverbs of intensity, duration, continuity and  frequency
			Examples:
		Adverbs of repetition.
			Examples:
		Adverbs of distribution
			Examples:
		Adverbs of alternation
			Examples:
		Adverbs of time
			Examples:
		Adverb of respect
			Examples:
		Adverb of identity
			Example:
		Adverbs of comparison
			Examples:
		Adverbs and Adjectives
	Pronouns, Demonstratives and Pro-Phrases
		Pronouns
		Subject/Topic pronouns
		Phonological variations
			Examples:
		Attributive/Non-focus pronouns
		Phonological changes
		Order of subject and attributive pronouns.
			Examples:
		Independent pronouns
		Interrogative pronoun
			Examples:
				Demonstratives
		Basic demonstratives
		Phonological changes
			Examples:
		Locative demonstratives
			Examples:
		Combination of locative demonstratives and  existential adjective
			Examples:
		Existential demonstratives
			Examples:
		Independent demonstratives
		Phonological changes
		Components of independent demonstratives and  articles.
			Examples:
		Independent pronouns and demonstrative stems
			Example:
		Demonstratives of similarity
			Examples:
		Pro-phrases of time
			Examples:
		Interrogative pro-phrases
			Examples:
	Nouns
		Structure of noun stems
		Basic nouns
			Examples
		Derived nouns
		Grammatical categories of nouns
		Plurality (multiplicity) in nouns
		Agreement of articles, demonstrative adjectives,  verbs and nouns.
		Devices for indicating plurality in nouns
		Shift in stress
			Examples:
		Reduplication of first consonant and following  vowel
			Examples:
		Reduplication of initial (C)VC
			Examples:
		Reduplication of initial (C)VCV
			Examples:
		Affixation with -(e)s
			Examples:
		Affixation with ka-…-án
			Examples:
		Affixes associated with noun stems
		Nominal affixes
		Nominalizing affixes
		Multiple classification of word roots.
		Non-productive affixes
	Adjectives
		Structure of adjective stems
			Examples:
		Constructions involving adjectives
		Phrases containing several adjectives
		Adjectives followed by attributive phrases
			Examples:
		‘Superlative’ adjectives
			Examples:
		Affixes of intensity and diminution
		Derivational affixes
			Examples:
	Verbs
		Characteristics of verbs
		Aspect
		Transitivity
		Mode
		Focus
		Voice
		Verbal Affixes
		Unaffixed passive verb stems
			Examples:
		Unaffixed verb stems denoting activity itself
			Examples:
		Phonological changes in verb and adjective roots
		Stress shifts
		Vowel deletion
	Numerals
		Basic Numerals
		Spanish-derived numerals
		Cardinal numerals
		Spanish-derived ordinal numerals
			Examples:
		Pangasinan numerals
		Ordinal numerals
		Use of simple ordinal numerals
			Examples:
		Complex numerals
		Individuated numerals
		Distributive numerals
		Frequentative numerals -- cardinal
		Frequentative numerals -- ordinal
		Numerals of limitation
		Numeral of group distribution
		Ordinal numerals
		Fractional numerals
		Affixes associated with numeral stems
PHRASES AND SENTENCES
PHRASES AND SENTENCES
	Sentence types
		MINOR SENTENCES
		Greetings
		Farewells
		Interjections
		Other minor sentences
	Equational sentences
		The comment phrase
		The topic phrase
			Examples:
		Inverted equational sentences
			Examples:
		Negating equational sentences
			Examples:
		Cross reference to attributive and topic pronouns
			Examples: (attributive pronoun + appo-sitional phrase)
			Example: (attributive + topic pronoun + appositional phrase)
			Examples: (topic pronoun + appositional phrase)
	Verbal Sentences
		Structure of verbal sentences
		The verb phrase
		Potential subjects of the verbal sentence
			Examples:
		Other phrases
			Example:
				Order of phrases within the verbal sentence
		Normal order
		Emphasis
		Subject functioning as comment phrase
			Examples:
		Emphasis of time phrase
			Examples:
		Emphasis of referent of location
			Examples:
		Shift of subject in emphatic equation-type verbal  sentences
		Displacement of focused attributive phrase by  object phrase
			Examples:
		Displacement of focused attributive phrase by  independent demonstrative.
			Example:
		Emphasis of subject pronoun
			Examples:
		Emphasis of linked adjective in verb phrase
			Examples:
		Pronominalization
		Pronominalization of action-attributive phrase
			Examples:
		Pronominalization of plural attributive phrases
			Examples:
		Pronominalization of focused phrase other than  action-attributive
			Examples:
		Pronominalization of unfocused non-attributive  phrases
			Examples:
		Displacement of linked complements by subject  and attributive pronouns.
			Examples:
		Displacement of particles contiguous to verb
			Examples:
				Negating Verbal Sentences
		Equation-type emphatic sentences
			Examples:
		Negating an anaphoric comment phrase
			Examples:
		Other verbal sentences
		Negation of verb, action-attributive, or subject
			Examples:
		Negation of non-equational emphatic sentences
			Examples:
		Negation of imperative sentences.
			Examples:
		Negation of particles in the verb phrase
			Examples:
		Anaphoric negative action-attributive phrases
			Examples:
				Focus
		Focus transformations
		Relationship of grammatical to logical categories;
		changes in status of focused and unfocused phrases.
		Transitivity, actors, objects and goals
			Examples:
		Sets of focus affixes
		Focus of verbs used in ‘infinitive’ sense
			Examples:
		Focus relationships between questions and replies,  and in verb sequences
		Imperative sentences
		Modal imperatives
			Examples:
		Declarative imperatives
			Examples:
				Exercises --Direct Voice Verbal Sentences
				Active sentences
				Exercise I - Verbal affixes on- (i[ncomplete]),  -inm- (c[omplete]), neutral transitivity,  indicative mood.
				Exercise II - man- (i), nan- (c), implicit tran­ sitivity, intentive mood.
				Exercise III - maN- (i), aN- (c), implicit transi­ tivity.
				Exercise IV - mañgi (i), añgi- (c), explicit  transitivity.
				Exercise V - aka- (c), neutral transitivity,  involuntary mode.
				Exercise VI - mi- (i), aki- (c), reciprocal.
				Exercise VII mi- … -a (i), aki- … -an (c),  reciprocal, emphatic.
				Exercise VIII maka- (c) potential.
				Exercise IX maka- + pi- (c), potential, reciprocal.
				Exercise X makaka- (i), potential.
				Exercise XI magsi- (i), nagsi- (c), distributive.
				Passive affixes
				Exercise XII -en (i), -in- (c), explicit transitiv­ ity.
				Exercise XIII i- (i), in- (c), intentive.
				Exercise XIV ni- (c), intentive, purposive, potential.
				Exercise XV na- (i), a- (c), potential.
				Exercise XVI na- (i), na- ( + stress shift or vowel  deletion (c)), involuntary.
				Exercise XVII pan- (i), inpan- (c), paN- (i), inpaN- (c), pañgi- (i), inpañgi- (c), subject = time phrase.
				Referent focus affixes
				Exercise XVIII -an (i), -in- … -an (c), indicative.
				Exercise XIX pan- … -an (i), nan- … -an (c),  location, source.
				Exercise XX paN- … -an (i), aN- … -an (c) location,  source.
				Exercise XXI pañgi- … -an (i), añgi- … -an (c),  location, source.
				Exercise XXII na- … -an (i), a- … -an (c),  potential.
				Exercise XXIII paka- … -an (i), aka- … -an (c),  involuntary.
				Exercise XXIV na- … -an (i), na- + stress shift or  vowel deletion … -an (c), potential, involuntary.
				Benefactive focus
				Exercise XXV i- … -an (i), in- … -an (c), indicative.
				Exercise XXVI ni- … -an (c) intentive, potential.
				Instrumental focus
				Exercise XXVII (i) pan- (i), inpan- (c) (for the use  of pan-, inpan- in reference to time phrases, see  Exercise XVII (passive affixes)).
				Exercise XXVIII (i) pañgi-(i), inpañgi- (c) (see also  Exercise XVII (passive affixes)).
				Causative Voice
		Implications of causative voice
		Transitivity and focus relationships in causative  sentences
		Active sentences
			Examples:
		Passive sentences
			Examples:
		Referent focus sentences
			Examples:
		Benefactive and instrument focus sentences
			Examples:
				Exercises --Causative Verbal Sentences
		Active sentences
		Exercise XXIX man- (i), nan- (c) + pa-.
		Passive sentences
		Exercise XXX i- (i), in- (c) + pa-.
		Exercise XXXI na- (i), a- (c) + pa-.
		Referent focus sentences
		Exercise XXXII -an (i), -in- … -an (c) + pa-.
		Benefactive focus sentences
		Exercise XXXIII i- … -an (i), in- … -an (c),  + pa-.
APPENDIX I
	Index to Affixes
APPENDIX II
	Keys to Exercises
APPENDIX III
	Miscellaneous Lexical Items
		Personal pronouns
		Basic demonstratives
		Case-marking particles
		Basic numerals
		Focus-marking verbal affixes
		Active affixes
		Passive affixes
		Referent focus affixes
		Benefactive focus affixes
		Instrumental focus affixes
		Agent focus affixes
		Examples of affixed verb stems
		Basic Vocabulary (Swadesh 200-word list)