Ortner's identification of pathological conditions in human skeletal remains

Ortner’s Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
A Tribute to Don Ortner
	References
1 Introduction
	History of the First Edition From Donald J. Ortner
		Acknowledgments for the First Edition
	History of the Second Edition From Donald J. Ortner
		Acknowledgments for the Second Edition
	Objectives of the First and Second Editions
	History of the Third Edition From Jane E. Buikstra
		Acknowledgments for the Third Edition
	Objectives of the Third Edition
	Format of the Volume
	Abbreviations
	References
2 A Brief History and 21st Century Challenges
	A Brief History of Paleopathology
	21st Century Paleopathology
	Paleoepidemiology
		Epidemiology and Paleoepidemiology
		The Relationship Between Paleoepidemiology and Paleopathology
		Paleoepidemiology and the Osteological Paradox
	References
3 Themes in Paleopathology
	Social and Identity Theory
		Feminist and Gender Theory
		The Intersectionality of Sex, Gender, and Age
	Structural Violence
	Ancient Humans and Impairment, Disability, and Care
	Osteobiography in Paleopathology
	References
4 Fundamentals of Human Bone and Dental Biology: Structure, Function, and Development
	Skeletal Structure, Function, and Cellular Basis of Bone Biology
		Evolution of the Vertebrate Skeleton
		Gross Function and Anatomy
		Bone Tissue: Composition and Organization
		Cartilaginous Tissue
		Bone Cells
		Molecules and Signaling Pathways: Master Control Mechanisms
	Skeletogenesis and Bone Modeling
		Embryological and Developmental Processes
		Bone Modeling
			Endochondral Ossification
			Intramembranous Ossification
			The Facial Skeleton
	Bone Remodeling
		The Basic Multicellular Unit
	Tooth Structure and Formation
		Enamel
		Dentin
		Periodontal Ligament and Cementum
		Tooth Morphogenesis
	Conclusions
	References
5 Abnormal Bone: Considerations for Documentation, Disease Process Identification, and Differential Diagnosis
	Abnormal Bone: General Considerations and Gross Appearance
	Description of Abnormal Bone
	Differential Diagnosis
	Cases of Abnormal Bone: Modeling Description, Identification, and Differential Diagnoses
	Conclusion
	References
6 Histomorphology: Deciphering the Metabolic Record
	Introduction
		Visualization of Histological Structures in Dry Bone
	Histomorphology: Deciphering the Metabolic Record
		The Cellular Basis of Bone Formation and Resorption
		Remodeling and the Morphology of the BMU
		Calculation of Remodeling Parameters From BSUs
		Application of Remodeling Parameters to Pathological Cases and Archeological Skeletal Populations
	Why Bones Break: Histomorphometric Assessment of Bone Strength and Fragility
		Mechanical Loading Shapes the Material and Structural Properties of Bone Tissue
			Bone Functional Adaptation
			Mechanical Loading Modes Experienced by Bone
			Material Properties and Bone Strength
			Trade-Offs Between Strength and Toughness in Fracture Resistance
			Normal Trajectory of Remodeling Rate Over the Lifespan
			Describing Osteopenia and Osteoporosis in Modern Populations
			Describing Bone Loss in Past Populations
		Bone Strength at the Microscale: Microdamage as an Energy-Dissipating Mechanism
			Morphology of Microdamage Depends on Loading Mode
			Diffuse Microdamage as an Energy-Dissipating Mechanism
			Microdamage Tends to Initiate at Stress-Concentrating Voids
			Changes With Age: Increased Mineralization Accelerates Microdamage Accumulation
			Changes With Age: Older Tissue Loses Osteocyte Sensitivity to Microdamage
			Intraskeletal Variability in Microdamage Accumulation
		Bone Strength at the Microscale: Lacunar-Canalicular Architecture Reflects Osteocyte Activity
			Osteocyte Lacunar Density and Volume Increases With Higher Strain
			Changes With Age: Osteocyte Lacunar Density Decreases
			Changes With Age: Percent Occupied Lacunae Decreases
			Changes With Age: Altered Lacunar-Canalicular Architecture
			Osteocytic Osteolysis and Pathology
		Bone Strength at the Microscale: Vascular Porosity Reflects Resorption Activity
			Vascular Porosity Reflects Regional Mechanical Strain
			Changes With Age: Increased Vascular Porosity Weakens Bone
		Bone Strength at the Microscale: Secondary Osteon Size and Shape as Toughening Mechanisms
			Small, Circular Osteons Are Associated With Higher Mechanical Strain
			Mechanical Strain Directs Three-Dimensional Secondary Osteon Orientation
			Changes With Age: Secondary Osteons Become Smaller and More Circular
		Structural Properties of Whole Bone in Cross-Section
			Radial Expansion of the Cross-Section Results From Growth in Bone Length
			Sexual Dimorphism in Radial Expansion During Growth and Senescence
			Sexual Dimorphism in Trabecular Bone Loss With Age
			Estrogen Deficiency Also Contributes to Bone Loss in Elderly Men
			Cortical Drift During Growth Alters Cross-Sectional Shape
			Assessment of Axial Loading Differences Through the Relative Cortical Area
			Cross-Sectional Shape as a Metric of Loading Direction
			The Parabolic Index: An Overlooked Cross-Sectional Indicator of Osteoporosis
	Pathology and Histomorphometry
		Remodeling Processes Commonly Disrupted by Pathology
			Pathological Alteration of Remodeling Rate Over the Lifespan
			Pathological Alteration of Mineralization
			Pathological Alteration of Collagen Deposition
		Infection: Osteomyelitis
		Cancer: Metastatic Bone Disease
		Cancer: Osseous Bone Tumors
		Imbalances of Bone Remodeling: Paget’s Disease of Bone (PDB)
		Imbalances of Bone Remodeling: Osteopetrosis
		Disorders of Bone Mineral Homeostasis: Rickets/Osteomalacia
		Disorders of Bone Mineral Homeostasis: Hyperparathyroidism
		Disorders of Bone Mineral Homeostasis: Hyperthyroidism
		Disorders of Bone Mineral Homeostasis: Diabetes mellitus
		Disorders of Bone Mineral Homeostasis: Glucocorticoid Excess
		Collagen Disorders: Osteogenesis Imperfecta
	Conclusion
	References
7 The Role of Imaging in Paleopathology
	Why Is Medical Imaging Important?
	A Brief History of Radiology in Paleopathology
	Basic Principles and Terminology
	Radiographic Appearance of Pathologic Conditions
		Mummies, Paleopathology, and Radiography
	Other Bone Changes and Radiography
		Harris Lines
		Body Mass Calculations
		Osteoporosis
	Taphonomic Alterations
	Other Imaging Modalities
		Microcomputed Tomography
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging
	Conclusion
	References
8 Ancient DNA in the Study of Ancient Disease
	Introduction to Ancient DNA
		History/Trajectory of the Field
		Current Methods
			DNA Preservation
			Sample Preparation and DNA Extraction
			NGS Analyses
			Microbiome Analyses
	Applications of Ancient DNA
		Ancient DNA of Pathogens That Can Leave Bony Changes: Leprosy, Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, Malaria, Syphilis
			Leprosy
			Tuberculosis
			Brucellosis
			Malaria
			Syphilis
		Mass Graves and “Invisible” Pathogens: Smallpox, Plague, Cholera, Enteric Dysentery, and Flu
			Yersinia pestis
			Smallpox
			Food and Waterborne Outbreaks
			Influenza
			“Invisible” Pathogens (to the Paleopathological Record)
		Parasites and Commensals (Lice, Worms, and the Microbiome)
			Lice
			Parasites in Feces
			The Gut Microbiome
			The Oral Microbiome
	Future Prospects for Ancient Pathogen Research
	References
9 Trauma
	Introduction
	Trauma
		Pathology
			Classification of Fractures
			Fracture Mechanisms
			Fracture Healing
			Bony Sequelae of Trauma
			Dental Trauma
			Subluxation and Dislocation
		Recording Trauma
		Paleopathology
			Introduction
			Trauma Resulting From Intentional Violence
			Fractures Resulting From Accidental Events
			Fracture Treatment
			Complications of Fracture
			Dislocation (Luxation) and Subluxation
			Trauma, Mortality, and Violence in Past Societies
				Mortality Patterns in the Past
				Organized Violence
				Structural Violence
					Child Abuse
					Elder Abuse
					Intimate Partner Abuse
				Violence Directed Toward Bodies
				Traumatic Surgical Interventions
					Amputation
					Trepanation
		Sincipital T-Mutilation
		Trauma to the Skeleton Through Cultural Modifications
			Cranial Modification
			Foot Binding
			Waist Training
			Dental Modification
	Summary and Conclusions
	References
10 Infectious Disease: Introduction, Periostosis, Periostitis, Osteomyelitis, and Septic Arthritis
	Introduction
		Humoral Versus Cellular Responses to Infectious Agents
		Vascular Changes in Response to Infectious Agents
		The Biology of Infection
	Periostitis or Periostosis
		Pathology
		Periostosis in Particular Parts of the Skeleton
		Paleopathology
	Osteomyelitis
		Pathology
		Hematogenous Osteomyelitis
		Infant Osteomyelitis
		Adult Osteomyelitis
	Changes in Specific Bones
		Skull
		Spine
		Short Tubular Bones
		Cancellous Bones
	Paleopathology of Osteomyelitis
		The Skull
		Postcranial Osteomyelitis
	Septic Arthritis
		Pathology
		Paleopathology
	Summary
	References
11 Bacterial Infections
	Introduction
	Tuberculosis
		Introduction
		Pathology
		Statistical Data
		General Pattern of Bone and Joint Tuberculosis
			The Spine
			The Hip
			The Knee
			The Ankle (Distal Tibia and Fibula) and Tarsal Bones
			The Tubular Bones of the Hands and Feet
			The Shoulder
			The Elbow
			The Wrist and Carpal Bones
			The Shaft of Long Bones
			Ribs
			Sternum
			The Skull
				Cranial Vault
				Cranial Base
				Facial Bones
		Paleopathology
			Old World Evidence
			New World Evidence
				Was There Pre-Columbian Tuberculosis?
				Phylogeography of American Tuberculosis
			Skeletal Examples
	Leprosy
		Introduction
		Pathology
			Direct Effects of M. leprae
			Indirect Effects of M. leprae
			Periostosis of Limb Bones
			Other Bone Changes Associated With Leprosy
			Diagnosis of Leprosy in Skeletal Remains
		Paleopathology
			Naestved, Denmark
			Chichester, England
	Treponematosis, Treponemal Infection, or Treponemal Disease (TD)
		Introduction
		Pathology
			Yaws
			Bejel (or Endemic Syphilis or Treponarid)
			Venereal Syphilis (VS)
				The Skull
				The Spine
				The Long Bones
				The Joints
			Congenital Syphilis (CS)
		Paleopathology
			Historical Documents
			Skeletal Remains
			Theories of Disease Evolution
			Molecular Evidence
			Skeletal Examples
				Congenital Syphilis
				Adult Treponemal Disease
	Brucellosis
		Introduction
		Pathology
		Paleopathology
	Glanders
		Pathology
	Actinomycosis and Nocardiosis
		Pathology
	Plague
		Introduction
		Paleopathology
	References
12 Fungal, Viral, Multicelled Parasitic, and Protozoan Infections
	Fungal Infections
		Introduction
		Pathology
			North American Blastomycosis
			Paracoccidioidomycosis
			Cryptococcosis
			Coccidioidomycosis
			Histoplasmosis
			Mucormycosis (Phycomycosis and Zygomycosis)
			Mycetoma (Maduromycosis)
			Sporotrichosis
			Aspergillosis
		Paleopathology of Fungal Infections
	Viral Infections
		Introduction
		Pathology
			Smallpox (Variola)
			Rubella
			Poliomyelitis
			Paget’s Disease
			Skull
			Long Bones
			Spine
			Flat Bones
			Paget’s Disease Sarcoma
		Paleopathology of Viral Infections
			Smallpox
			Poliomyelitis
			Paget’s Disease
	Multicelled Parasitic Infections
		Introduction
		Pathology
			Echinococcosis
		Paleopathology of Multicelled Parasitic Infections
	Protozoan Infections
		Pathology
			Leishmaniasis
			Malaria
		Paleopathology of Protozoan Infections
			Leishmaniasis
			Malaria
	Sarcoidosis
		Introduction
		Pathology
	References
13 Parasitology
	Bringing Ortner Forward in Time and Application: Echinococcus granulosus
	Archeological Data Violating Clinical Predictions Signal Fruitful Areas of Investigation: The Case of Enterobius vermicularis
	Chagas Disease, Mummies, and Molecular Biology: Adjusting Clinical Perspectives
	Lice Reflect Social Organization, Interaction, and Privation
		Medicines and Dietary Analysis
	Cemetery Studies: Korea and Central Russia AD 1500–1800
	Conclusion
	References
14 Circulatory, Reticuloendothelial, and Hematopoietic Disorders
	Circulatory Disorders
		Blood Supply of Bones
		Osteonecrosis
			Paleopathology
		Necrosis of the Femoral Head
			Paleopathology
		Legg–Calvé–Perthes Disease and Slipped Femoral Capital Epiphysis
			Paleopathology
	Other Disorders Associated With Osteonecrosis
		Köhler’s Disease of the Tarsal Navicular
		Freiberg’s Disease of a Metatarsal Head
	Other Diseases Associated With Trauma and Vascular Deficiency
		Osteochondritis Dissecans
			Paleopathology
		Osgood–Schlatter Disease
			Paleopathology
		Scheuermann’s Disease
			Paleopathology
		Hypertrophic (Pulmonary) Osteoarthropathy
			Paleopathology
		Aneurysmal Erosion
			Paleopathology
	Reticuloendothelial Disorders
		Lipid Storage Diseases
			Gaucher’s Disease
			Niemann–Pick Disease
			Other Lipidoses
			Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis (Histiocytosis X)
				Paleopathology
	Hematopoietic Disorders
		Anemias
			Thalassemia
			Sickle Cell Anemia and Its Genetic Variants
			Hereditary Spherocytosis (Congenital Hemolytic Anemia)
			Iron-Deficiency Anemia
			Erythroblastosis Fetalis
		Paleopathology of Anemia
	Thalassemia and Sickle Cell Anemia
	Iron-Deficiency Anemia
		Leukemia
		Myeloma
			Paleopathology
	References
15 Metabolic Disease
	Introduction
	Vitamin C Deficiency
	Subadult Scurvy
		Paleopathology
	Adult Scurvy
		Paleopathology
	Vitamin D Deficiency
	Rickets
		Paleopathology
	Osteomalacia
		Paleopathology
	Co-occurrence of Rickets and Scurvy
	Osteoporosis
		Methods in the Study of Osteoporosis in Paleopathology
			Measurement of Bone Quantity
			Measurement of Bone Quality
		Paleopathology
		Conclusion
	Fluorosis
		Paleopathology
	Hyperostosis Frontalis Interna
		Paleopathology
	References
16 Endocrine Disturbances
	Introduction
	Pituitary Disturbances
		Pathology
		Pituitary Gigantism
		Acromegaly
		Hypopituitarism
		Pituitary Dwarfism
	Paleopathology
		Gigantism
		Acromegaly
		Pituitary Dwarfism
	Other Endocrine Disturbances
		Introduction
	Pathology
		Hypothyroidism
		Hyperthyroidism
		Cushing’s Disease
		Hypogonadism
		Hypergonadism
		Hypoparathyroidism
		Albright’s Hereditary Osteodystrophy
		Hyperparathyroidism
		Primary Hyperparathyroidism (Osteitis Fibrosa Cystica Generalisata)
		Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
	Paleopathology
		Hypothyroidism
		Albright’s Hereditary Osteodystrophy
		Hyperparathyroidism
	References
17 Congenital and Neuromechanical Abnormalities of the Skeleton
	Introduction
	Skull
		Pathology
			Anencephaly
			Cleft Lip and/or Palate
			Congenital Herniations
			Premature Suture Closure
			Hydrocephalus
		Paleopathology
			Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate
			Congenital Herniation
			Hydrocephalus
			Biparietal Fenestra
			Premature Fusion of Sutures
	Spine
		Pathology
			Spina Bifida
			Congenital Kyphosis and Lordosis
			Scoliosis
			Sacralization and Lumbarization
			Klippel–Feil Syndrome
			Spondylolysis
			Postparalytic Deformities of the Spine
		Paleopathology
			Scoliosis
			Spina Bifida
			Klippel–Feil Syndrome
			Spondylolysis
	Ribs and Sternum
		Pathology and Paleopathology
	Pelvis
		Pathology
		Paleopathology
	Extremities
		Pathology
			Postparalytic Deformities of the Appendicular Skeleton
		Paleopathology
			Postparalytic Deformities
	References
18 Skeletal Dysplasias and Related Conditions
	Introduction
	Defects in Endochondral Bone Formation
		Achondroplasia
			Pathology
		Thanatophoric Dwarfism
			Paleopathology
	Multiple Epiphyseal Dysplasias
		Paleopathology
	Acromesomelia
	Léri–Weill Dyschondrosteosis
		Paleopathology
	Mucopolysaccharidosis
		Pathology
	Defects in Intramembranous Bone Formation
		Osteogenesis Imperfecta
			Pathology
			Type I (A and B) Osteogenesis Imperfecta
			Type II Osteogenesis Imperfecta
			Types III and IV Osteogenesis Imperfecta
		Paleopathology
	Cleidocranial Dysplasia
		Pathology
	Osteopetrosis
		Pathology
			Malignant Osteopetrosis
	Metaphyseal Dysplasia (Pyle’s Disease)
		Pathology
		Paleopathology
	Progressive Diaphyseal Dysplasia (Camurati–Engelmann’s Disease)
		Pathology
		Palaeopathology
	Melorheostosis (Leri’s Disease)
		Pathology
	Osteopoikilosis
		Pathology
	Osteopathia Striata
		Pathology
		Paleopathology
	References
19 Tumors of Bone
	Introduction
		Principles of Diagnosis
		Paleopathology
	Primary Benign Tumors
		Pathology
			Osteogenic Tumors
				Osteoma
				Osteoid Osteoma
				Osteoblastoma
			Chondrogenic Tumors
				Chondroma
				Osteochondroma
				Chondroblastoma
				Bizarre Parosteal Osteochondromatous Proliferation and Subungual Exostosis
				Chondromyxoid Fibroma
			Fibrogenic, Fibrohistiocytic, and Fibro-Osseous Lesions
				Desmoplastic Fibroma
				Nonossifying Fibroma and Benign Fibrous Histiocytoma
				Fibrous Dysplasia
				Osteofibrous Dysplasia
			Osteoclastic Giant Cell-Rich Tumors
				Giant Cell Tumor of Bone
			Vascular Tumors
				Hemangioma and Vascular Malformations
				Epithelioid Hemangioma
			Meningioma
			Cystic Lesions
				Simple Bone Cysts
				Aneurysmal Bone Cyst
				Intraosseous Epidermal Cyst and Dermoid Cyst
		Paleopathology
			Osteogenic Tumors
				Osteoma
				Osteoid Osteoma and Osteoblastoma
			Chondrogenic Tumors
				Chondroma
				Osteochondroma
				Chondroblastoma
			Fibrogenic, Fibrohistocytic, and Fibro-Osseous Lesions
				Nonossifying Fibroma
				Fibrous Dysplasia
			Osteoclastic Giant Cell-Rich Tumors
				Giant Cell Tumor of Bone
			Vascular Tumors
				Hemangioma and Vascular Anomalies
			Meningioma
			Cystic Lesions
	Primary Malignant Bone Tumors
		Pathology
			Osteosarcoma
			Chondrosarcoma
			Ewing Sarcoma of Bone
			Chordoma
			Adamantinoma
		Paleopathology
	Bone Metastases
		Pathology
			Biology of Bone Metastases
			Diagnostic Features
		Paleopathology
	Abbreviations
		Carina Marques
	References
20 Joint Disease
	Osteoarthritis
		A Note on Nomenclature
		Pathophysiology of Osteoarthritis
		Types of Osteoarthritis
		Precipitants of Osteoarthritis
		Paleopathological Diagnosis
		The Distribution of Osteoarthritis in the Skeleton
		Particular Features of Osteoarthritis in Different Joints
		Effects of Osteoarthritis During Life
		Osteoarthritis and Occupation
	Other Conditions With Proliferation or Eburnation
	The Erosive Arthropathies
		Rheumatoid Arthritis
	The Sero-Negative Arthropathies
		Ankylosing Spondylitis
		Reactive Arthropathy
		Psoriatic Arthropathy
		Enteropathic Arthropathy
		Some General Comments on the Sero-Negative Arthropathies
		Erosive Osteoarthritis
	The Crystal Arthropathies
		Gout
	Septic Arthropathy
	References
21 The Dentition: Development, Disturbances, Disease, Diet, and Chemistry
	Introduction
	Dental Development
		Dentin
		Enamel
	Disturbances in Dental Development
		Abnormal Quality of Teeth: Disturbance of Dentin Development
			Pathology
			Paleopathology
		Abnormal Quality of Teeth: Disturbance of Enamel Development
			Pathology
			Palaeopathology
		Abnormal Quality of Teeth: The Effects of Disease
			Pathology
			Paleopathology
		Abnormal Quantity of Teeth and Dental Crowding
			Pathology
			Paleopathology
		Abnormal Size of Teeth
			Pathology
			Paleopathology
		Dental Anomalies
			Pathology
			Paleopathology
		Dental Discoloration
			Pathology
			Paleopathology
	Identifying Dental Wear and Oral Disease
		Dental Wear
			Pathology
			Paleopathology
		Caries
			Pathology
			Paleopathology
		Alveolar Lesions
			Pathology
			Paleopathology
		Other Miscellaneous Conditions of the Oral Cavity
			Pathology
			Odontogenic Cysts: Pathology and Paleopathology
			Odontogenic Tumors: Pathology and Paleopathology
			Nonodontogenic Cysts and Tumors: Pathology and Paleopathology
			Hyperostosis/Tori: Pathology and Paleopathology
		Antemortem Tooth Loss
			Pathology
			Paleopathology
		Periodontal Disease
			Pathology
			Paleopathology
	Interpreting Oral Health
		Sex Differences in Oral Health
		Oral Health and Demographic Transitions
	Dental Chemistry
		Introduction
		Paleodietary Reconstruction: Bulk Stable Isotope Analysis Background
		Paleodietary Reconstruction: Bulk Stable Isotope Analysis in Bioarcheological Research
		Paleodietary Reconstruction: Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis Background
		Paleodietary Reconstruction: Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis in Bioarcheological Research
		Paleodietary Reconstruction: Trace Elements Background
		Paleodietary Reconstruction: Trace Elements in Bioarcheological Research
		Patterns of Breastfeeding and Weaning: Background
		Patterns of Breastfeeding and Weaning: The Bioarcheological Research
		Understanding Stress and Disease From Chemical Analyses: Background
		Understanding Stress and Disease From Chemical Analyses: The Bioarcheological Research
		Human Mobility and Migration: Background
		Human Mobility and Migration: The Bioarcheological Research
	Dental Calculus
		Pathology: Dental Calculus Formation
		Paleopathology: Microparticle Analyses of Dental Calculus in Bioarcheology
		Paleopathology: Chemical Analyses of Dental Calculus for Bioarcheological Research
		Paleopathology: aDNA and Protein Analyses of Dental Calculus for Bioarcheological Research
	References
22 Mummies and Paleopathology
	Paleopathological Examination of Mummies
		Endoscopy
		Tissue Histology
	Mummy Paleopathology
		Neoplasms
		Infectious Diseases
		Parasitic and Helminth Diseases (See Also Chapter 14)
		Other Diseases of Visceral Organs
		Lesions, Trauma, and Cause of Death
	Conclusion
	References
23 Nonhuman Animal Paleopathology—Are We so Different?
	Introduction
	Research Foci Within Nonhuman Animal Paleopathology
	Areas of Departure
	Areas of Commonality
	Toward Closer Integration
	Acknowledgments
	References
24 Postscript
	The Future of Paleopathology
	References
Index