Organ Crosstalk in Acute Kidney Injury: Basic Concepts and Clinical Practices

Foreword
Contents
Chapter 1: Nosology and Semiotics
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 A Brief Historiography of Semiotics and Health/Medicine
	1.3 Semiotic Aspects of Nosology
	1.4 Fundamental Elements of a Biosemiotic Perspective on Human Health
		1.4.1 The Umwelt
		1.4.2 Body and Environment
		1.4.3 Physiology, Behaviour and Perception
		1.4.4 Endosemiosis
	1.5 Contributions to Biosemiotic Medicine
		1.5.1 Process-Based Medicine in Light of the Ontogeny of the Human Being
		1.5.2 Biosemiotic Medicine Within and Beyond Human Health Studies
		1.5.3 The Human Being Conceived of as a System of Interrelated Sign Systems
		1.5.4 The Human Microbiome: The Human Organism Conceived of as an Ecosystem
		1.5.5 A Biosemiotic Understanding of Organ Crosstalk
	References
Chapter 2: Acute Kidney Injury: Definition and Generalities
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Prerenal AKI
	2.3 Renal or Intrinsic AKI
	2.4 Obstructive AKI
	2.5 AKI Implications
	2.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3: Hormones
	3.1 General Principles of the Endocrine System
		3.1.1 Structure, Organization, and Function of the Endocrine System
	3.2 Hormone Synthesis: Basic Concepts
		3.2.1 Transport
	3.3 Mechanisms of Hormone Action
		3.3.1 Types of Receptors
		3.3.2 Membrane Receptors
		3.3.3 Intracellular Receptors
	3.4 Regulation of Hormone Levels, Synthesis, and Secretion
	3.5 Water and Electrolyte Balance
	3.6 Antidiuretic Hormone and Extracellular Fluid (ECF) Osmolality
	3.7 Endocrine Regulation of Water Balance
	3.8 Sodium and Potassium Balance and the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)
	3.9 The RAAS and the Regulation of Sodium and Potassium Homeostasis
	3.10 Natriuretic Factors
	3.11 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4: Neurotransmitters and Autonomous Nervous System
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
		4.1.2 Anatomy of ANS
	4.2 Mechanism of Action
		4.2.1 Chemical Synapse
		4.2.2 Neurotransmitters
		4.2.3 Catecholamines
		4.2.4 Acetylcholine (ACh)
		4.2.5 Nitric Oxide (NO)
	4.3 Sympathetic Nervous System and Kidneys
	4.4 Central Nervous System Control of Renal Function
	4.5 Acute Kidney Injury and Special Conditions
	4.6 Septic Acute Renal Injury
	4.7 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 5: Cytokines, Chemokines, Inflammasomes, Myokines and Complement-Related Factors in Acute Kidney Injury
	5.1 Cytokines in Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)
		5.1.1 Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha (TNF-α)
		5.1.2 Interferon Gamma (IFNγ)
		5.1.3 Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β)
		5.1.4 Interleukin 1-Beta (IL-1β)
		5.1.5 Interleukin 2 (IL-2)
		5.1.6 Interleukin 6 (IL-6)
		5.1.7 Interleukin 18 (IL-18)
		5.1.8 Interleukin 20 (IL-20)
	5.2 Immunoregulation by Cytokines in AKI
		5.2.1 Chemokines in AKI
		5.2.2 Inflammasome
		5.2.3 Canonical Inflammasome
		5.2.4 NLRP3
		5.2.5 Non-Canonical Inflammasomes
		5.2.6 Inflammasomes in AKI
	5.3 Complement-Related Factors in AKI
	References
Chapter 6: Genetic, Epigenetics, and Cell Adhesion in Acute Kidney Injury
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Epigenetics of Cell Adhesion and Migration in AKI
		6.2.1 Why Polymorphic Variants Might Better Explain the Interplay Between Acute Kidney Disease and Its Effect on Patients
		6.2.2 Some Genes and Polymorphic Variants That Could Exacerbate Acute Kidney Injury
		6.2.3 Polymorphism Associated with Inflammatory Responses
			6.2.3.1 Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α)
			6.2.3.2 Interleukin 6 (IL6) and Interleukin 10 (IL10)
			6.2.3.3 Human Leukocyte Antigen–Major Histocompatibility Complex (HLA-DR)
		6.2.4 Polymorphisms Associated with Vascular Hemodynamic Response and Cellular Metabolic Homeostasis
	6.3 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7: Organs Crosstalk Perspective
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Biosemiotics: Life as a Dialogue
	7.3 Biosemiotics: Health and Disease as a Process
	7.4 Organic Intercommunication: The Crosstalk Perspective
	7.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8: Kidney–Brain Crosstalk in Acute Kidney Injury
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Pathological Crosstalk
		8.2.1 Inflammation
	8.3 Blood–Brain Barrier
	8.4 Oxidative Stress
	8.5 Uremia
	8.6 Metabolic Acidosis and Drug Toxicity
	8.7 Pathological Activation of Neurohormonal Systems
	8.8 Protective Responses During Injury
	8.9 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9: Kidney–Lung Crosstalk in Acute Kidney Injury
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Pathophysiology
	9.3 Renal-Induced Lung Damage
		9.3.1 Cytokine Induced Damage
		9.3.2 Immune Cells
		9.3.3 Ischemia Induced Damage
		9.3.4 Pulmonary Edema
	9.4 Lung-Induced Renal Damage
		9.4.1 Systemic Inflammation
		9.4.2 Ventilator-Induced Lung Injury
		9.4.3 Hypoxia and Hypercapnia
	9.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10: Kidney–Heart Crosstalk in Acute Kidney Injury
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Cardiorenal Syndrome
	10.3 Acute Cardiorenal Syndrome
		10.3.1 Hemodynamic and Neurohumoral Response
		10.3.2 Inflammatory Response
	10.4 Acute Renal-Cardiac Syndrome
	10.5 Acute HF Treatment and Its Relationship with Renal Function
	10.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11: Kidney–Gut Crosstalk in Acute Kidney Injury
	11.1 Introduction
		11.1.1 Gut Barrier
		11.1.2 Metabolites Derived from Microbiota
		11.1.3 Microbiota and Immunity
		11.1.4 Microbiome and Uremic Toxins
	11.2 Kidney–Gut Crosstalk in AKI
		11.2.1 AKI and Dysbiosis
		11.2.2 AKI and Barrier Integrity
		11.2.3 AKI and Altered Immunity
		11.2.4 Crosstalk in Septic AKI
	11.3 Therapeutic Targets
		11.3.1 Selective Decontamination of the Digestive Tract (SDD)
		11.3.2 Probiotics
		11.3.3 Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs)
	11.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12: Kidney–Liver Crosstalk in Acute Kidney Injury
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Definitions
	12.3 Pathogenesis of Hepatorenal Syndrome
		12.3.1 Circulatory Dysfunction
		12.3.2 Systemic Inflammation
		12.3.3 Cirrhotic Cardiomyopathy
		12.3.4 Cytokines
	12.4 Clinical Application of Kidney Biomarkers
	12.5 Prevention of Hepatorenal Syndrome
		12.5.1 Prevention of Circulatory Dysfunction
		12.5.2 Antibiotic Prophylaxis
	12.6 Management and Treatment of Hepatorenal Syndrome
	12.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 13: Kidney–Muscle Crosstalk in Acute Kidney Injury
	13.1 Acute Kidney Injury Definition Based on Creatinine and Creatinine Metabolism
	13.2 Rhabdomyolysis
	13.3 AKI and Muscular Damage
	13.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 14: Kidney–Placenta Crosstalk in Acute Kidney Injury
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Placenta-Kidney Perspective
	14.3 Physiological Adaptation to Pregnancy
	14.4 Pathogenesis of Pregnancy-Related Diseases and its Impact on Healthy Kidneys
	14.5 Pregnancy Effects on Kidney Disease
	14.6 Renal Damage: Kidney-Placenta Perspective
	14.7 AKI in CKD Pregnant Woman
	14.8 Post-Renal Pregnancy-Related Acute Kidney Injury (Pr-AKI)
	14.9 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 15: Renal Replacement Treatment, Blood Purification, and Crosstalk in Acute Kidney Injury
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 High-Flow Kidney Replacement Therapy and Sepsis
	15.3 Kidney Replacement Therapy in Acute Neurological Injury (ANI) and AKI
	15.4 Kidney Replacement Therapy in Acute Heart Failure (AHF) and AKI
		15.4.1 Cardiorenal Syndrome
		15.4.2 Clinical Evidence
	15.5 Kidney Replacement Therapy in Acute Liver Injury (ALI) and AKI
		15.5.1 Artificial Extracorporeal Hepatic Assistance Systems
		15.5.2 Plasmapheresis
		15.5.3 Dialysis with Albumin
		15.5.4 Hemoperfusion in Sepsis and AKI
		15.5.5 Hemoperfusion in AKI Associated with COVID-19
		15.5.6 Hemoperfusion in Cardiovascular Surgery
	15.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 16: Acute Kidney Injury and Organ Crosstalk in COVID-19
	16.1 Acute Kidney Injury in COVID-19 (AKI-COVID-19)
	16.2 Crosstalk in AKI COVID-19
		16.2.1 Cytokine Storm
		16.2.2 Chemokines
		16.2.3 Immune Cells Response
			16.2.3.1 Innate Immune Response
			16.2.3.2 Acquired Immune Response
		16.2.4 Other Organ Compromise in COVID-19
			16.2.4.1 Lung
			16.2.4.2 Heart
			16.2.4.3 Muscles
			16.2.4.4 Coagulation
			16.2.4.5 Vessels
			16.2.4.6 Colon
	16.3 Conclusion
	References
Index