Orchids Phytochemistry, Biology and Horticulture: Fundamentals and Applications

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Biogeography, Biodiversity, and Environmental Factors
	1 The Role of Ecological Factors in Distribution and Abundance of Terrestrial Orchids
		1 Introduction
		2 Elevation, Latitude, Longitude, and the Orchid Species-Area Relationship
			2.1 Elevation
			2.2 Latitude and Longitude
			2.3 Orchid Species-Area Relationship
		3 Climate
			3.1 Temperature
			3.2 Precipitation
			3.3 Atmospheric Humidity
			3.4 Light
			3.5 Orchid Species Distribution and Its Patterns in a World Subjected to Climate Change
		4 Geological Substrates and Soil Properties
			4.1 Geological Substrates
			4.2 Soil Properties
				4.2.1 Soil Moisture
				4.2.2 Soil pH
				4.2.3 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium
				4.2.4 Calcium and Magnesium
				4.2.5 Organic Matter
				4.2.6 Orchids Growing on Anthroposols
		5 Vegetation Types
			5.1 Forest and Scrub Vegetation
				5.1.1 Deciduous Forests
				5.1.2 Coniferous and Mixed Broadleaved-Coniferous Forests
				5.1.3 Mire and Swamp Forests
				5.1.4 Broadleaved Evergreen Forests, Coniferous Forests of the Mediterranean, and Scrub Vegetation
			5.2 Herbaceous Vegetation
				5.2.1 Grasslands, Meadows, and Heaths
				5.2.2 Vegetation of Bogs and Fens
				5.2.3 Marshland Vegetation
			5.3 Anthropogenic Vegetation
		6 Effects of Disturbance
		7 Orchid Specialists and Generalists
		8 Orchid Mycorrhizal Fungi
		9 Pollination Systems
		10 Conclusions
		References
	2 Which Environmental Factors Drive Distribution of Orchids? A Case Study from South Bohemia, Czech Republic
		1 Introduction
		2 Materials and Methods
		3 Results and Discussion
			3.1 Anacamptis morio (L.) R.M. Bateman, A.M. Pridgeon & M.W. Chase 1997
			3.2 Cephalanthera rubra (Linne) L.C.M. Richard 1818
			3.3 Dactylorhiza fuchsii (Druce) Soó 1962
			3.4 Epipactis palustris (Linne) Crantz 1769
			3.5 Neottia nidus-avis (Linne) L.C.M. Richard 1817
			3.6 Neottia ovata (L.) Bluff & Fingerh. 1838
			3.7 Platanthera chlorantha (Custer) Rchb. 1828
		4 Summary
		5 Conclusions
		References
	3 Diversity, Ecology, and Conservation of Mauritius Orchids
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Mass-Extinction and Island Biodiversity
			1.2 Mauritius
		2 Diversity
			2.1 Background
			2.2 Diversity and Endemism
			2.3 Types and Distribution
		3 Ecology
		4 Threats and Conservation
			4.1 Deforestation
			4.2 Harvesting
			4.3 Alien Plants
			4.4 Alien Animals
			4.5 Indirect Effects
			4.6 Other Threats
		5 Conclusion
		References
	4 Diversity of Orchids from Continental Sub-Saharan Africa
		1 Introduction
		2 Method of Data Collection
		3 Brief Presentation of Orchidaceae
			3.1 Distribution of Orchids
			3.2 Botanical Description and Systematic
		4 The Orchids of Sub-Saharan Africa
			4.1 Richness According to Geographic Areas
			4.2 Endemism of Orchidaceae Species in the Sub-Saharan Countries
		5 Uses of Orchidaceae Species in African Countries
		6 Conclusion
		References
	5 Orchid Biodiversity and Genetics
		1 Introduction
		2 Orchid Biodiversity Versus Adaptation
		3 Floral Development and Genetics in Orchids
		4 Orchid Flower Development and MADS Box Genes
		5 Floral Whorl Development in Orchids - Class A MADS Box Genes
		6 The Orchids Class B MADS-Box Genes
		7 The Orchid Class C and D MADS-Box Genes
		8 Ovule Development
		9 Perianth Senescence/Development
		10 Genetic Variation Versus Secondary Metabolite and Adaptations
		11 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Biology
	6 Orchid-Associated Bacteria and Their Plant Growth Promotion Capabilities
		1 Introduction
		2 Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria
		3 Mycorrhiza Helper Bacteria
		4 Methods for the Study of Orchid-Associated Bacteria
		5 Diversity of Orchid-Associated Bacteria
			5.1 Seed-Associated Bacteria
			5.2 Phyllosphere-Associated Bacteria
			5.3 Rhizosphere-Associated Bacteria
			5.4 Root Endosphere-Associated Bacteria
			5.5 Fungi-Associated Bacteria
		6 Management of Root-Associated Bacteria in Cultural Practices
		7 Conclusion
		References
	7 Mycorrhiza in Orchids
		1 Introduction
		2 Geological Location and Environment
		3 Mycobiont Invasion in Orchid Tissues at Different Stages of Development
		4 Root Cortex and Fungal Pelotons
		5 Fungal Members as Orchid Mycorrhiza
			5.1 Rhizoctonia Fungi
			5.2 Basidiomycetous and Ascomycetous Ectomycorrhiza
		6 Orchid Specificity for a Symbiont
		7 Peloton Formation and Mycophagy or Necrotrophy
		8 Orchid Mycorrhiza and Nutrient Transport
		9 Nutrient Transfer Mechanism in Orchids
		10 Transport of Phosphorus
		11 Transfer of Other Micronutrients
		12 Transport of Nitrogen
		13 Transport of Carbon
		14 Conclusion
		References
	8 Phytoalexins in Orchids
		1 Introduction
		2 Biosynthetic Pathways
		3 Role of Phytoalexins in Plants
		4 Role of Plant Hormones
			4.1 Phytoalexins in Gymnosperms
		5 Phytoalexins in Orchids
		6 Phytoalexins and Human Health
		7 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Horticulture
	9 Micropropagation of Some Orchids and the Use of Cryopreservation
		1 Introduction
		2 Orchid Micropropagation
			2.1 Protocorm and Protocorm-Like Body Formation in Orchids
			2.2 The Components of Orchid Tissue Culture Media
				2.2.1 Culture Media
				2.2.2 Sugar
				2.2.3 Plant Growth Regulators
				2.2.4 Vitamins
				2.2.5 Amino Acids
				2.2.6 Banana Homogenate
				2.2.7 Potato Extract
				2.2.8 Coconut Water
				2.2.9 Chitosan
				2.2.10 Activated Charcoal
				2.2.11 Solid or Semisolid Supports
		3 Orchid Cryopreservation
			3.1 Dormant Bud Method
			3.2 Slow Freezing Method
			3.3 Vitrification Method
			3.4 Encapsulation-Dehydration Method
			3.5 Encapsulation-Vitrification Method
			3.6 Droplet-Vitrification Method
			3.7 V Cryo-Plate Method
			3.8 D Cryo-Plate Method
		4 Conclusions
		References
	10 Cymbidium: Botany, Production, and Uses
		1 Introduction
		2 Genetic Diversity
		3 Cytology
			3.1 Chromosome Number
			3.2 Pre- and Postzygotic Barriers
		4 Natural Hybridization
		5 Cymbidium Breeding
			5.1 Breeding Strategies in Cymbidium
				5.1.1 Hybridization and Selection
				5.1.2 Polyploidy Breeding
		6 Propagation
			6.1 Conventional Propagation
				6.1.1 Division of Plant
				6.1.2 Propagation Through Back Bulbs
			6.2 Nonconventional Propagation
				6.2.1 Seeds
				6.2.2 Induction of Protocorm-Like Bodies (PLBs)
					Shoot Tip Culture
					Leaf Segment Culture
					Root Segment Culture
			6.3 Thin Section Culture
			6.4 Shoot and Root Development
			6.5 Acclimatization and Hardening
		7 Cultivating Cymbidiums
			7.1 Agroclimatic Requirements
				7.1.1 Temperature
				7.1.2 Light
				7.1.3 Humidity
			7.2 Growing Media
			7.3 Nutrient Management
			7.4 Watering
		8 Plant Health Management
			8.1 Insects and Pests
				8.1.1 Aphids
					Damage
					Management
				8.1.2 Scale Insects
					Boisduval Scale, Diaspis boisduvalii (Signoret)
					Ti Scale, Pinnaspis buxi (Bouche)
					Soft Brown Scale, Coccus hesperidum Linn.
					Florida Red Scale, Chrysomphalus aonidum Linn.
					Damage
					Management
					Cultural Practices
					Biological Control
					Chemical Control
				8.1.3 Thrips, Dichromothrips nakahari (Mound)
					Damage
					Management
				8.1.4 Red Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae)
					Damage
					Management
			8.2 Diseases of Cymbidium
				8.2.1 Anthracnose
					Symptoms
					Epidemiology
					Management
				8.2.2 Black Rot
					Symptoms
					Epidemiology
					Management
				8.2.3 Bacterial Soft Rot
					Causal Pathogen: Erwinia sp.
				8.2.4 Bacterial Brown Rot
					Management
				8.2.5 Nematode Disease
					Symptoms
					Management
				8.2.6 Viral Diseases of Orchids
					Cymbidium Mosaic Virus (CymMV)
					Odontoglossum Ringspot Virus (ORSV)
					Calanthe Mild Mosaic Virus (CalMMV)
					Orchid Fleck Virus (OFV)
				8.2.7 Detection and Management
		9 Other Uses
			9.1 Medicinal Use
			9.2 Cosmetics
			9.3 Food
			9.4 Other Uses
		10 Conclusion
		References
	11 Biotechnology Approaches on Characterization, Mass Propagation, and Breeding of Indonesian Orchids Dendrobium lineale (Rolf...
		1 Introduction
		2 Breeding Programs on Orchids Revealed by Biotechnology Approaches
		3 Phytochemical Compounds of Dendrobium lineale and Vanda tricolor
		4 Dendrobium Chemical Compounds
		5 Vanda Compounds
		6 Pharmacological Activities
		7 Conclusions
		References
	12 Preferences of Orchid Consumers and the Substitute Products´ Influences
		1 Introduction
		2 Material and Methods
		3 Results and Discussion
		4 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Agri-food Applications
	13 Vanilla: Culture, Reproduction, Phytochemistry, Curing, Pest, and Diseases
		1 Introduction
		2 Cultivation Methods
		3 Flowering
		4 Phytochemistry
		5 Curing
		6 Pest and Diseases
			6.1 Fungal Diseases
			6.2 Viral Diseases
		7 Conclusion
		References
	14 Vanillin: Biosynthesis, Biotechnology, and Bioproduction
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Vanilla Species as Source of Vanillin
			1.2 Vanillin Sources: Plants and Microorganisms
			1.3 Volatiles Related to Vanilla Flavor
			1.4 Endophyte Species Occurrences Depending on Geographical Location
			1.5 Plant and Endophyte Cohabitation
		2 Conclusions
		References
Part V: Phytochemistry and Medicinal Properties
	15 Ethnobotany and Recent Advances in Indian Medicinal Orchids
		1 Introduction
		2 Orchids in Indian System of Medicine
			2.1 Ayurveda
			2.2 Siddha
			2.3 Unani
			2.4 Tribal Medicine
		3 Orchids in Indian Medicine
			3.1 Acampe Lindley
				3.1.1 Acampe carinata (Griff.) Panigrahi
				3.1.2 Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt & McCann
			3.2 Acanthephippium Lindl.
				3.2.1 Acanthephippium bicolor Lindl.
			3.3 Aerides Lour.
			3.4 Agrostophyllum Blume
				3.4.1 Agrostophyllum callosum Rchb. f.
			3.5 Arundina Blume
				3.5.1 Arundina graminifolia (D. Don) Hochr.
			3.6 Bulbophyllum Thouars
				3.6.1 Bulbophyllum acutiflorum A.Rich. (Syn: Bulbophyllum albidum (Wight) Hook.f.)
				3.6.2 Bulbophyllum cariniflorum Rchb.
				3.6.3 Bulbophyllum fusco-purpureum Wight
				3.6.4 Bulbophyllum kaitiense Rchb.f.
				3.6.5 Bulbophyllum sterile (Lam.) Suresh Syn: Bulbophyllum nilgherrense Wight
			3.7 Coelogyne Lindl.
				3.7.1 Coelogyne cristata Lindl.
				3.7.2 Coelogyne stricta (D. Don) Schltr.
			3.8 Cymbidium Swartz.
				3.8.1 Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw.
			3.9 Dactylorhiza Necker ex Nevski
				3.9.1 Dactylorhiza hatagirea Soo
			3.10 Dendrobium Sw.
				3.10.1 Dendrobium nodosum Dalzell (Syn. Flickingeria nodosa (Dalzell) Seidenf.)
				3.10.2 Dendrobium plicatile Lindl. (Syn. Flickingeria fimbriata (Blume) A.D. Hawkes; Dendrobium macraei Lindl.)
			3.11 Eulophia R. Br.
				3.11.1 Eulophia dabia (D.Don) Hochr (Syn. Eulophia campestris Wall. Ex Stapf.)
				3.11.2 Eulophia epidendraea (J.Koenig ex Retz.) C.E.C.Fisch
				3.11.3 Eulophia herbacea Lindl.
				3.11.4 Eulophia nuda Lindl. (Syn. Eulophia spectabilis Suresh)
				3.11.5 Eulophia ochreata Lindl.
			3.12 Habenaria R. Br.
				3.12.1 Habenaria commelinifolia (Roxb.) Wall. ex Lindl.
				3.12.2 Habenaria edgeworthii (Hook f. ex Colett) R.K.Gupta (Syn: Habenaria acuminata Lindl. syn Platanthera edgeworthii (Hook....
				3.12.3 Habenaria intermedia D.Don.
				3.12.4 Habenaria longicorniculata Graham
				3.12.5 Habenaria marginata Colebr.
				3.12.6 Habenaria roxburghii Nicolson
			3.13 Malaxis Sol ex. Sw.
				3.13.1 Malaxis acuminata D. Don (Syn Microstylis wallichii Lindl.) (Currently known as Crepidium acuminatum (D. Don) Szlach.)
				3.13.2 Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) Ktze.
			3.14 Pholidota Lindl. ex Hook.
			3.15 Rhynchostylis Blume
			3.16 Vanda Jones ex R Br.
				3.16.1 Vanda spathulata (L.) Spreng.
				3.16.2 Vanda tessellata (Lindl.) Rchb. f. (Syn. Vanda roxburghii R. Br.)
		4 Conclusion
		References
	16 Traditionally Used Medicinal Dendrobium: A Promising Source of Active Anticancer Constituents
		1 Introduction
		2 Anticancer Compounds Isolated from Dendrobium Species
		3 Methods of Screening Anticancer Effect
			3.1 In Vitro Assay
				3.1.1 Trypan Blue Dye Exclusion (TBDE) Assay
				3.1.2 Resazurin Cell Growth Inhibition (RCGI) Assay
				3.1.3 Lactic Dehydrogenase (LDH) Assay
				3.1.4 Sulforhodamine B (SRB) Assay
				3.1.5 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide (MTT) Assay
				3.1.6 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-Carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-Sulfophenyl)-2H-Tetrazolium (MTS) Assay
				3.1.7 2,3-Bis(2-Methoxy-4-Nitro-5-Sulfophenyl)-2H Tetrazolium-5-Carboxyanilide Inner Salt (XTT) Assay
			3.2 In Vivo Assay
				3.2.1 Induction of Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma
		4 Anticancer Effects of Dendrobium Species
			4.1 Cytotoxicity Effect
			4.2 Anti-metastasis Effect
			4.3 Antiangiogenesis Effect
		5 Production of Anticancer Compounds Through In vitro Culture of Dendrobium Species
		6 Conclusion
		References
	17 A Review on Phytochemistry, Nutritional Potential, Pharmacology, and Conservation of Malaxis acuminata: An Orchid with Reju...
		1 Introduction
		2 Botanical Description of the Species
		3 Habitat, Distribution, and Ecology
		4 Medicinal and Other Uses
		5 Nutritional Composition
		6 Bioactive Compounds Isolated from M. acuminata
		7 Biological and Pharmacological Activities
			7.1 Antioxidant Activity
			7.2 Antiaging Activity
			7.3 Sun Protection Factor (SPF) and UV-A Blocking Activity
			7.4 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
			7.5 Antiproliferative Activity
			7.6 Antimicrobial Activity
		8 Propagation and Cultivation Effort
			8.1 Vegetative Propagation Techniques
			8.2 In Vitro Propagation Techniques
		9 Future Prospective and Conclusion
		References
	18 Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Conservation of Ansellia africana: A Vulnerable Medicinal Orchid of Africa
		1 Introduction
		2 Ansellia africana as a Species
		3 Ethnomedicinal, Horticultural, and Traditional Uses
		4 Ex Situ Conservation Using In Vitro Technologies
		5 Phytoconstituents and Biological Activity
			5.1 Antimicrobial and Membrane Damaging Activity
			5.2 Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory, Antiinflammatory, and Antioxidant Activity
		6 Molecular Biology Approaches
		7 Future Research Prospects
			7.1 Bioassays and In Vivo Model-Based Studies
			7.2 Drug Discovery
			7.3 Next-Generation Sequencing and Transcriptome Data Mining
			7.4 Endophyte Mapping and Metabolite Production
			7.5 Phylogeography and DNA Barcoding
		8 Conclusions
		References
	19 Dendrobium sp.: In vitro Propagation of Genetically Stable Plants and Ethnomedicinal Uses
		1 Introduction
		2 Ethnomedicinal Uses
		3 In Vitro Propagation of Dendrobiums
			3.1 Culture Media and Plant Growth Regulators
			3.2 Explants (Selection and Surface Sterilization)
			3.3 In Vitro Propagation of Dendrobiums Using Different Explants
				3.3.1 Seed Culture
				3.3.2 Shoot Tips
				3.3.3 Pseudobulb Segments
				3.3.4 Nodal Segment
				3.3.5 Flower Stalk Node
		4 Genetic Stability of In Vitro Propagated Dendrobiums
			4.1 Somaclonal Variation
			4.2 Genetic Stability Assessment Using DNA Markers
		5 Conclusions
		References
	20 Eulophia spp.: In Vitro Generation, Chemical Constituents, and Pharmacological Activities
		1 Introduction
		2 Distribution and Botanical Description
		3 Phytochemical Constituents
		4 Pharmacological Activities
			4.1 Ethnopharmacological Uses
			4.2 Evidence-Based Pharmacological Activities
		5 In vitro Regeneration, Phytochemical Production, and Conservation
		6 Conclusion
		References
	21 Cyrtopodium glutiniferum, an Example of Orchid Used in Folk Medicine: Phytochemical and Biological Aspects
		1 Introduction
		2 The Genus Cyrtopodium R. Br. (Orchidaceae) and Cyrtopodium glutiniferum Raddi: Biological, Cultivation, and Phytochemical As...
		3 Ethnopharmacological Aspects of Cyrtopodium glutiniferum
		4 Novel Evidences of C. glutiniferum Efficacy on Skin Lesions Treatment
		5 Conclusions
		References
	22 Phenanthrenes from Orchidaceae and Their Biological Activities
		1 Introduction
		2 Occurrence of Phenanthrenes in Orchidaceae Species
			2.1 Monophenanthrenes
			2.2 Di- and Triphenanthrenes
			2.3 Occurrence of phenanthrenes in Orchidaceae
		3 Chemotaxonomical Significance
		4 Pharmacological Activities of Orchidaceae Phenanthrenes
			4.1 Traditional Uses of Orchids
			4.2 Biological Activities of Orchidaceae Phenanthrenes
				4.2.1 Antiproliferative Activity
				4.2.2 Antimicrobial Activity
				4.2.3 Anti-inflammatory Activity
				4.2.4 Antioxidant Activity
				4.2.5 Other Activities
		5 Conclusions
		References
	23 Orchids of Genus Bletilla: Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, Bioactivities, and Commercial Importance
		1 Introduction
		2 Botanical Description, Distribution, and Ecology
		3 Traditional Uses
		4 Bioactive Compounds
		5 Biological Activities
			5.1 Anti-inflammatory Activity
			5.2 Antioxidant Activity
			5.3 Cytotoxic, Antitumor, and Anticancer Activity
			5.4 Antimicrobial Activity
			5.5 Hemostatic Activity
			5.6 Immunological Activity
			5.7 Anti-Fibrosis Activity
			5.8 Antiviral Activity
			5.9 Wound Healing Activity
			5.10 Antiulcer Activity
			5.11 Anti-neuroinflammatory Activity
			5.12 Anti-Mitotic Activity
			5.13 Anti-Tyrosinase Activity
			5.14 Anti-Ulcer Activity
		6 Commercial Importance
		7 Conclusions and Future Remarks
		References
	24 Orchids of Genus Vanda: Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, Bioactivities, and Commercial Importance
		1 Introduction
		2 Botanical Description, Distribution, and Ecology
		3 Traditional Uses
		4 Phytochemistry
		5 Biological Activities
			5.1 Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities
			5.2 Cytotoxic Activity
			5.3 Hepatoprotective Activity
			5.4 Antimicrobial Activity
			5.5 Antiaging Activity and Cosmetic Applications
			5.6 Antidepressant Activity
			5.7 Neuroprotective Activity
			5.8 Antinociceptive and Analgesic Activities
			5.9 Other Pharmacological Activities
		6 Commercial Importance
		7 Conclusions and Future Recommendations
		References
Part VI: Cosmetic Applications
	25 Orchid Extracts and Cosmetic Benefits
		1 Introduction
		2 Causes and Treatment Strategies of Dryness, Greasiness, Wrinkle, and Aging of Skin
		3 Impacts of Radical, UV, and Extracellular Matrix in Firmness, Wrinkle, and Aging of Skin
		4 Orchids and Cosmetic Benefits
			4.1 Ansellia africana
			4.2 Bulbophyllum scaberulum
			4.3 Dendrobium spp.
			4.4 Dendrobium candidum
			4.5 Dendrobium chrysotoxum
			4.6 Dendrobium denneanum
			4.7 Dendrobium huoshanense
			4.8 Dendrobium nobile
			4.9 Dendrobium officinale
			4.10 Dendrobium tosaense
			4.11 Eulophia hereroensis
			4.12 Eulophia macrobulbon
			4.13 Eulophia petersii
			4.14 Tridactyle tridentata
			4.15 Vanda coerulea
			4.16 Vanda roxburghii
			4.17 Vanda teres
		5 Conclusions
		References
	26 Orchids from Basilicata: The Scent
		1 Introduction
		2 Platanthera Orchids
		3 Cephalanthera Orchids
		4 Serapias Orchids
		5 Barlia robertiana
		6 Conclusion
		References
Index