Optimal Control of Greenhouse Cultivation

Cover Page......Page 1
Title: Optimal Control Of Greenhouse Cultivation......Page 3
ISBN 9781420059618......Page 4
Contents......Page 5
Preface......Page 11
Acknowledgments......Page 15
Authors......Page 16
Notation Conventions......Page 17
1.1 Greenhouse- Crop Cultivation— Benefits and ChallengeS......Page 19
1.3 Elementary Description of the Greenhouse- Crop System......Page 20
1.4 Measurements and Instrumentation......Page 24
1.5 Decomposition, Fluxes, and Information Flows......Page 25
1.6 General State– Space Representation......Page 28
1.7 Hierarchical Computerized Control......Page 29
1.8 Current Status of Computerized Control......Page 31
Reference......Page 32
2.1 Introduction and Motivation......Page 33
2.2 A Simple Illustrative Example......Page 34
2.3 General Formulation of Optimal Control Problems......Page 35
2.4 Benefits and Difficulties Associated with Optimal Control......Page 39
3.2 Optimal Control Theory......Page 43
3.3 Optimal Control Algorithms......Page 48
3.3.1 Indirect Methods......Page 49
3.3.2 Direct Methods and Control Parameterization......Page 51
References......Page 56
4.1 Introduction......Page 57
4.2 State Estimation......Page 58
4.3 Linear Quadratic Feedback......Page 59
4.3.1.1 T he Problem of Widely Different Time Scales......Page 60
4.3.1.2.1 First Major Computation......Page 62
4.3.1.2.2 Second Major Computation......Page 63
4.3.2 Conclusions......Page 65
References......Page 66
5.2.1 Generic Problem Statement......Page 67
5.2.2 Open-Loop Solution of the Whole Problem......Page 68
5.2.3 The Choice of the Weather......Page 69
5.2.4.1 Online Solution by Repeated Optimization......Page 70
5.2.5 Time-Scale Decomp osition......Page 72
5.2.5.2 Online Implementation......Page 73
5.2.5.3 Hierarchical Control, Setpoint Tracking......Page 74
5.2.5.4 Receding Horizon Optimal Control with Slow Costates as Inputs......Page 75
5.2.5.5 Explaining the Difference: The Sailing Analogy......Page 76
TA BLE 5.1 Categories of Crop Cultivation Optimization......Page 78
5.4 Classification of Proposed Greenhouse Climate Control Solutions......Page 79
5.4.1.1 General Overview......Page 81
5.4.1.2.3 Decoupling and Feedback Linearization......Page 82
5.4.1.2.5 Proportional- Integral- Plus Control......Page 83
5.4.1.2.7 Adaptive Control......Page 84
5.4.1.3.1 Heuristic Solutions......Page 85
5.4.1.4.1 Minimizing Costs within Operational Bounds......Page 86
5.4.1.4.2 CO2 Enrichment......Page 87
5.4.1.4.3 Temperature Integral......Page 88
5.4.1.5.1 Transpiration Control......Page 89
5.4.2 Focus on Strategies Driven by Slow Crop Processes......Page 90
5.4.2.1 Assessing Economics by Simulation or Local Optimization......Page 91
5.4.2.2 Optimal Strategies Using Dynamic Optimization......Page 92
5.4.2.2.1 Other Studies on the Nature of Costates and Optimal Control Solutions......Page 95
5.4.3 Integration, Application, and Implementation......Page 96
5.4.3.3 Direct Application of Computed Controls......Page 97
5.4.3.5 Implementations of Optimal Control Using Meta- Information......Page 98
5.5 Discussion and Conclusion......Page 99
References......Page 100
6.1 Introduction......Page 107
6.2 Models......Page 108
6.3 The Optimal Control Problem......Page 112
6.4.1 Analysis of the Optimal Control Problem......Page 115
6.4.2.1 Materials and Methods......Page 120
6.4.2.2 Results......Page 121
6.4.2.3 Discussion......Page 125
6.4.2.4 Concluding Remarks......Page 126
6.4.3.1 Materials and Methods......Page 127
6.4.3.2 Results and Discussion......Page 128
6.4.3.3 Concluding Remarks......Page 131
6.4.4.1 Materials and Methods......Page 132
6.4.4.2 Results......Page 133
6.5 Concluding Remarks......Page 138
References......Page 139
7.1 Introduction......Page 141
7.2 Tomato Model......Page 142
7.2.2 Assimilate Pool......Page 144
7.2.4 Losses......Page 147
7.2.5.2 Growth Demand......Page 148
7.2.5.4 Development State......Page 149
7.2.5.5 Harvest Rate......Page 150
7.3 Greenhouse Climate Model......Page 151
7.3.1 Heat Balances......Page 153
7.3.1.2 Heating Pipe System......Page 156
7.3.2.1 Water Vapor in the Greenhouse Air......Page 158
7.3.3 Comparison of Lumped Model with Control Input by Actuators or by Fluxes......Page 160
7.4 State– Space Form of the Complete Greenhouse- Crop Model......Page 161
7.5.1 Calibration of the Big Leaf–Big Fruit Model......Page 163
7.5.2 Calibration of the Heating Pip e and Greenhouse Climate Model......Page 166
7.5.3 Conclusions about the Models......Page 168
7.6.1 Problem to Be Solved......Page 169
7.6.2 Method......Page 170
7.6.3 Results......Page 171
7.6.4 Recapitulation of the Open-Loop Step......Page 179
7.7 Two– Time- Scale Receding Horizon OPTIMAL Controller ( RHOC )......Page 181
7.7.1 Problem to Be Solved......Page 182
7.7.3 Results......Page 183
7.8.1 Sensitivity of RHOC to Modeling Errors......Page 185
7.8.4 Sensitivity of RHOC to Weather Forecast and Prediction Horizon......Page 187
7.9 Assessment of Economic Result as Compared with Conventional Control......Page 190
7.9.1.2 Matching the Humidity Constraint Violation......Page 191
7.9.1.4 Results......Page 192
7.10 Discussion and Conclusions......Page 194
References......Page 195
8.1 Introduction......Page 197
8.2 Description of the Solar Greenhouse Concept......Page 198
8.3.1 Greenhouse Confi guration......Page 199
8.3.2 Areenhouse Confi guration......Page 200
8.4 The Solar Greenhouse Model......Page 201
8.4.1 Carbon Dioxide Model......Page 207
8.4.1.2 Photosynthesis and Respiration......Page 209
8.4.2 Water Vapor Model......Page 210
8.4.2.2 Condensation of Water......Page 211
8.4.3 Thermal Model......Page 212
8.4.3.1 Convection......Page 213
8.4.3.3 Shortwave Radiation Absorption......Page 215
8.4.3.4 Conduction......Page 218
8.4.4 Modeling the Screen......Page 219
8.4.4.1 Screen Closure......Page 220
8.4.4.3 Temperatures and Concentrations of CO......Page 221
8.4.5.1 Volume Flow of Air through Windows and Leakage......Page 222
8.4.6.1 Heating System Boiler and Condenser......Page 224
8.4.6.3 Heating System Heat Pump......Page 227
8.4.6.4 Cooling System Heat Exchanger......Page 230
8.5 Model of Crop Biophysics......Page 232
8.5.1 Evapotranspi ration......Page 233
8.5.2.1 P hotosynthesis Model......Page 236
8.5.3 Temperature Integration......Page 243
8.6.1.2 External Inputs......Page 246
8.6.2 Sensitivity Analysis......Page 247
8.6.3 Parameter Estim......Page 248
8.7.1 Cost Function......Page 250
8.7.1.1 D erivation Bounds for Aquifer Energy Content......Page 253
8.7.2 Receding Horizon Optim al Control......Page 257
8.7.3 Control Inputs......Page 258
8.7.3.1 Initial Guess Control Inputs......Page 260
8.7.3.2 State- Dependent Control Input Bounds......Page 261
8.7.3.3 Example Grid Search......Page 262
8.7.4 External Inputs: The Weather Predictions......Page 263
8.7.6 Optimization Method: Gradient Search......Page 264
8.7.7 Results RHOC wi th Gradient Search......Page 266
8.7.7.1 A Priori versus A Posteriori Results......Page 267
8.7.7.2 Influence of the Separate Solar Greenhouse Elements......Page 275
8.7.8 Conclusions and Discussion......Page 276
References......Page 277
A.1 Solar Parameters......Page 279
A.2 Radiation Parameters......Page 280
B.1 Saturation Pressure and Concentration......Page 282
B.2 Relative Humidity......Page 283
B.3 Dewpoint Temperature......Page 284
9.2.1 Recent Advances in the Greenhouse Industry......Page 285
9.2.2 Future Developments in the Greenhouse Industry......Page 286
9.2.2.1 Innovations Motivated by Sustainability: Energy and CO......Page 287
9.2.2.2 Innovations Motivated by Sustainability: Water......Page 288
9.2.2.3 Innovations Motivated Mainly by Consumer Demands......Page 290
9.3.1 Demands of the Future......Page 291
9.3.2 How Does Optimal Control Fit In?......Page 292
9.4.1.1 External Input Information......Page 293
9.4.2.1 Lumped Physical Models......Page 294
9.4.3.2 Crop Model Process Details......Page 295
9.4.3.3 Crop Development......Page 297
9.4.4.1 Model Identification, Calibration, and Sensitivity......Page 298
9.4.4.2 Model Reduction......Page 299
9.4.5.2 C onstraints and Penalties......Page 300
9.4.6 Offline: Dynamic Optimization Methods......Page 301
9.4.7.1.1 MPC Issues in General......Page 302
9.4.7.2 Adaptive Receding Horizon Optimal Control......Page 303
9.4.7.3 Tracking Necessary Conditions for Optimality......Page 304
9.4.8 User Interaction......Page 306
TA BLE 9.1 Role of New Information and Communication Technologies and Challenges for Control......Page 307
9.5.3 Human Factor: The Control Engineer......Page 308
9.6 Conclusions and Perspectives......Page 310
References......Page 311
C......Page 315
F......Page 316
G......Page 317
H......Page 318
O......Page 319
R......Page 320
S......Page 321
T......Page 322
Y......Page 323
Back Page......Page 324