Optical Switching: Device Technology and Applications in Networks

Cover
Title Page
	Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
About the Editors
List of Contributors
	Part A Introduction
	Introduction
	A. Optical Communication Networks
			A.1  Historical Perspective
			A.2  Essential Background
	B. Optical Switching in Networks
			B.1  Historical Perspective
			B.2  Essential Background
	C.Organization of This Book
		Bibliography
	Part B Switch Characterization
	Chapter 1 Optical Switches
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Electro-Optical Switching
			1.2.1 Working Principle of Electro-Optical Switches
			1.2.2 Realization of Electro-Optical Switches
		1.3 Acoustic-Optical Switching
			1.3.1 Types of Acoustic-Optical Switching
			1.3.2 Acoustic-Optical Device Materials and Applications
		1.4 Thermo-Optical Switching
			1.4.1 Working Principle of Thermo-Optical Switches
			1.4.2 Realization of Thermo-Optical Switches
			1.4.3 Thermo-Optical Switch Materials and Applications
		1.5 Liquid Crystal-Optical Switching
			1.5.1 Types of Liquid Crystal-Optical Switches
			1.5.2 Liquid Crystal-Optical Switch Applications
		1.6 Photonic Crystal Optical Switching
		1.7 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) Optical Switching
		1.8 Magneto-Optical (MO) Optical Switching
		1.9 Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Optical Switching
		1.10 Metasurfaces Switches
		1.11 Conclusion
		Bibliography
	Chapter 2 Electro-Optic Switches
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Operating Principles
			2.2.1 Operating Principles of the Single-Mode Switch
			2.2.2 Operating Principles of the Multimode Switch
		2.3 Materials for the Fabrication of Electro-Optic Switch
			2.3.1 Ferroelectric Materials
			2.3.2 Compound Semiconductors
			2.3.3 Polymers
		2.4 Device Structures of Electro-Optical Switches
			2.4.1 1 × 1 Switch
			2.4.2 1 × 2 Switch
			2.4.3 2 × 2 Switch
			2.4.4 2 × 3 Switch
			2.4.5 3 × 2 Switch
			2.4.6 3 × 3 Switch
			2.4.7 1 × 4 Switch
			2.4.8 2 × 4 Switch
		2.5 Conclusions
		Bibliography
	Chapter 3 Thermo-Optical Switches
		3.1 History of Thermal Optical Switching
		3.2 Principles of Thermo-Optic Switch
			3.2.1 Thermo-Optic Effect
			3.2.2 Trade-Off Between Switching Time and Power Consumption
			3.2.3 Merits of Thermo-Optic Switch
		3.3 Category
			3.3.1 Material
			3.3.2 Implementation Principle
			3.3.3 Device Architecture
		3.4 Scalability
			3.4.1 Binary Tree
			3.4.2 Modified Crossbar
			3.4.3 Benes
		3.5 Application Scenarios
		Bibliography
	Chapter 4 Magneto-Optical Switches
		4.1 Introduction
			4.1.1 Types of Optical Switch
			4.1.2 How Does an Optical Switch Work?
			4.1.3 Applications of Optical Switches
		4.2 All-Optical Switch
			4.2.1 Why is an All-Optical Switch Useful?
		4.3 Magneto-Optical Switches
			4.3.1 Magneto-Optical Switch Features
			4.3.2 Principles of Magneto-Optical Switches
			4.3.3 Magneto-Optic Effect
		4.4 Faraday Rotation
			4.4.1 Phenomenological Model
			4.4.2 Atomic Model
		Bibliography
		Further Reading
	Chapter  5 Acousto-Optic Switches
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Fundamentals of Acousto-Optic Effect
		5.3 Acousto-Optic Diffraction
		5.4 Raman–Nath Diffraction
		5.5 Bragg Diffraction
		5.6 Principle of Operation of AO Switches
		5.7 Acousto-Optic Modulator
			5.7.1 Acousto-Optic Q-Switching
			5.7.2 Telecommunication Network
		5.8 Recent Trends and Applications
			5.8.1 Emerging Spatial Mode Conversion in Few-Mode Fibers
			5.8.2 Lithium Niobate Thin Films
			5.8.3 Optical Fiber Communication and Networking
		Bibliography
	Chapter 6 MEMS-based Optical Switches
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Micromachining Techniques
			6.2.1 Bulk Micromachining
			6.2.2 Surface Micromachining
		6.3 Switch Architectures
			6.3.1 One-Dimensional Switches
			6.3.2 Two-Dimensional MEMS Switches
			6.3.3 Three-Dimensional MEMS Switches
		6.4 Mechanisms of Actuations
			6.4.1 Electrostatic Actuation
			6.4.2 Magnetic Actuation
			6.4.3 Thermal Actuation
			6.4.4 Piezoelectric Actuation Mechanisms
			6.4.5 Other Actuation Mechanisms
		6.5 Optical Switch Parameters
			6.5.1 Switching Time
			6.5.2 Insertion Loss
			6.5.3 Crosstalk
			6.5.4 Wavelength
			6.5.5 Power Consumption
		6.6 Challenges
			6.6.1 Optical Beam Divergence
			6.6.2 Angular Control
			6.6.3 Reliability of Optical MEMS
		6.7 Conclusion
		Bibliography
	Chapter 7 SOA-based Optical Switches
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 SOA Structure
			7.2.1 Active Region
			7.2.2 Inter-Band Versus Intra-Band Transition
			7.2.3 Transparency Threshold
			7.2.4 Gain Nonlinearity
			7.2.5 Polarization-Insensitive SOA
			7.2.6 Noise in SOA
		7.3 Design Criteria of SOA-Based Switch
			7.3.1 Effect of Doping on Gain Dynamics
			7.3.2 Gain Dynamic for SOA
			7.3.3 Noise Suppression
			7.3.4 Scalability
		7.4 Advancements on SOA-Based Switch
		7.5 Networks Employing SOA-Based Switch
			7.5.1 Metro-Access Network
			7.5.2 RF Network
			7.5.3 Silicon Photonic Switching
			7.5.4 Data Center Network
		7.6 Discussion and Future Work
		Bibliography
	Chapter 8 Liquid Crystal Switches
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Liquid Crystal and Its Properties
		8.3 LC Structures for Optical Switching
			8.3.1 Twisted Nematic (TN) cells
			8.3.2 Surface-Stabilized Ferroelectric Liquid Crystal (SSFLC) Cells
			8.3.3 Spatial Light Modulator (SLM) Cells
		8.4 Liquid Crystal Switches
			8.4.1 Optical Crystal Switching Architectures
			8.4.2 Switches Based on Polarization
			8.4.3 LC Amplitude and Phase Modulator
			8.4.4 LC-Based Wavelength-Selective Switches (WSS)
		8.5 The Future of LC switches
			8.5.1 Liquid Crystal Photonic Crystal Fibers
			8.5.2 Ring Resonators with LC
		Bibliography
	Chapter 9 Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches
		9.1 Idea of Photonics
		9.2 Principles of Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches (AOS)
		9.3 Growth and Characterization of Optical Quantum Dots
			9.3.1 Integration of PhCs-Based AOS with Optical Quantum Dots (QDs)
			9.3.2 Growth and Characterization of Quantum Dots
		9.4 Design and Fabrication
			9.4.1 Sample Preparation
			9.4.2 Lithography
			9.4.3 Etching
		9.5 Device Structure and Performance Analysis of Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches
		9.6 Challenges and Recent Research Trends of Photonic Crystal All-Optical Switches
		Bibliography
	Chapter 10 Optical-Electrical-Optical (O-E-O) Switches
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Optical Switching Technologies: Working Principle
			10.2.1 Optical-Electrical-Optical Switching
			10.2.2 Optical Data Unit Switching
			10.2.3 Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer (ROADM)-Based Switching
			10.2.4 A hybrid approach
		10.3 Optical Transponders
			10.3.1 WDM Transponders: An Introduction
			10.3.2 Basic Working of Optical Transponders
			10.3.3 Necessity of Optical Transponder (OEO) in WDM System
			10.3.4 Applications of Optical Transponders
			10.3.5 Network Structure with Optical Transponder
			10.3.6 Differences Between Transponder, Muxponder, and Transceiver
			10.3.7 Summary
		10.4 Performance Analysis Study of All-Optical Switches, Electrical Switches, and Hybrid Switches in Networks
			10.4.1 Introduction
			10.4.2 Optical vs. Electrical vs. Hybrid Telecom Switches
			10.4.3 Optical vs. Electrical vs. Hybrid Data Center Switches
			10.4.4 Summary
		10.5 Electrical and Optoelectronic Technology for Promoting Connectivity in Future Systems
			10.5.1 CMOS Technology
			10.5.2 Considerations for Selection of Interconnects
		10.6 Conclusion
		Bibliography
	Chapter 11 Quantum Optical Switches
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Quantum Dot as an Optical Switch
			11.2.1 Vertical Cavities
			11.2.2 Power Density
		11.3 Quantum Well as an Optical Switch
			11.3.1 Optical Properties
			11.3.2 Self-Electro-Optic-Effect Devices
		11.4 Optomechanical Systems as Optical Switch
			11.4.1 Optical Nonlinearity
			11.4.2 Hybrid Optomechanics
			11.4.3 Electro-opto Mechanics
		11.5 Conclusion and Future Outlook
		Bibliography
	Chapter 12 Nonlinear All-Optical Switch
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Classification of All-Optical Switches
			12.2.1 Thermo-Optical Switch
			12.2.2 Acousto-Optic Switch
			12.2.3 Liquid Crystal Optical Switch
			12.2.4 Nonlinear Optical Switch
		12.3 Classification of Nonlinear All-Optical Switches
			12.3.1 Optical Coupler AOS
			12.3.2 Sagnac Interferometer AOS
			12.3.3 M–Z Interferometer AOS
			12.3.4 Ring Resonator AOS
			12.3.5 Fiber Grating AOS
		12.4 Working Methodology of Different Types of Nonlinear All-Optical Switches
			12.4.1 Optical Coupler AOS
			12.4.2 Sagnac Interferometer AOS
			12.4.3 M–Z Interferometer AOS
			12.4.4 Ring Resonator AOS
			12.4.5 Fiber Grating AOS
		12.5 Nanoscale AOS
		12.6 Future Scope and Conclusion
		Bibliography
	Chapter 13 Silicon Photonic Switches
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Performance Parameters
		13.3 Silicon Photonic Platform
		13.4 Physical Principles for Operation of Switches
			13.4.1 Electro-optic Effect
			13.4.2 Carrier Injection/Extraction
			13.4.3 Thermo-optic Effect
			13.4.4 All-optical Effect
		13.5 Major Configurations
			13.5.1 Directional Coupler
			13.5.2 Microring Resonator
			13.5.3 Mach–Zehnder Interferometer
			13.5.4 Micro-Electro-Mechanical System
		13.6 Hybrid Silicon Photonic Switches
			13.6.1 III-V Materials
			13.6.2 2D Materials
			13.6.3 Phase Change Materials
		13.7 Switch Fabrics Using MRR and MZI
		13.8 Summary
		Bibliography
	Part C Application of Optical Switches in Networks
	Chapter 14 Switch Control: Bridging the Last Mile for Optical Data Centers
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Switch Control Classification
			14.2.1 Electrical Switch Control
			14.2.2 Slow Optical Switch Control
			14.2.3 Fast Optical Switch Control
		14.3 Challenges for Switch Fabric Control
			14.3.1 Scalable Control Plane
			14.3.2 Precise Time Synchronization
			14.3.3 Fast Burst Clock Data Recovery
			14.3.4 Lack of Optical Buffer
			14.3.5 Reliability
		14.4 Switch Fabric Control: State of the Art
			14.4.1 Predefined Control
			14.4.2 SDN Control
			14.4.3 Label Control
			14.4.4 AI Control
		Bibliography
	Chapter 15 Reliability in Optical Networks
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 RAMS in Optical Networks
		15.3 Objectives
		15.4 Life Cycle of a Product/Project
		15.5 Preamble to RAMS
			15.5.1 Reliability
			15.5.2 Availability
			15.5.3 Maintainability
			15.5.4 System Safety
		15.6 Significance of Reliability in Optical Interconnect Systems
		15.7 Typical Components of Optical Circuitry
		15.8 Generic Types of Optical System
			15.8.1 Factors Influencing Reliability in Optical Networks
			15.8.2 Initial Insight of Failures
		15.9 Ensuring RAMS for the Optical System
			15.9.1 Reliability – An Essential Insight
			15.9.2 Availability Measures of Optical Networks
			15.9.3 Maintainability Aspects of Optical Networks
			15.9.4 Optical Networks for Safety-Critical Applications
		15.10 Process Control in Optical Components
		15.11 Hardware – Software Interactions (HSI) in Optical Networks
		15.12 Typical RAMS Realisation Plan for an Optical System
			15.12.1 System-level RAMS Activities
			15.12.2 Item-level RAMS Activities
		15.13 Trade-off Factors of Optical Networks
		15.14 Some Open Problems in RAMS-Optical System
		15.15 Conclusion
		Bibliography
	Chapter 16 Protection, Restoration, and Improvement
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Objectives of Protection and Restoration
		16.3 Current Fault Protection and Restoration Techniques
			16.3.1 Link Protection
			16.3.2 Path Protection
		16.4 Energy Efficiency of Optical Switching Technology
		16.5 Signal Quality Monitoring Techniques
		16.6 Challenges and Recent Research Trends
		16.7 Conclusion
		Bibliography
	Chapter 17 Optical Switching for High-Performance Computing
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Optical Switching
			17.2.1 Basics of Optical Switching
			17.2.2 Types of Optical Switching
		17.3 Communication vs Computation
		17.4 Path Reservation Algorithms
		17.5 High-Performance Optical Switching and Routing
			17.5.1 HPC Interconnection Challenges
			17.5.2 Challenges in the Design of Optical Interconnection Network
		17.6 Optical Switching Schemes for HPC Applications
			17.6.1 Routing Scheme (Avoid Packet Loss, Contention, etc.)
		17.7 Security Issues in Optical Switching
			17.7.1 Network Vulnerabilities
			17.7.2 Jamming Attacks (or Types of Attacks)
		17.8 Optical Switching – Interesting Topics
		17.9 Conclusion
		Bibliography
	Chapter 18 Software for Optical Network Modelling
		18.1 Optical Networks
			18.1.1 First Generation of Optical Networks
			18.1.2 Second Generation of Optical Networks
		18.2 Simulation Tools for Planning of Optical Network
			18.2.1 Network Simulators
			18.2.2 Physical Layer Simulation
		18.3 New Technologies
			18.3.1 Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
			18.3.2 Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
			18.3.3 Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning (AI/ML)
		Bibliography
Index
	EULA