Operations and Basic Processes in Steelmaking

Prologue
Contents
1 The Basic Oxygen Furnace to Obtain Steel
	1.1 Steel in the History
	1.2 The Basic Oxygen Furnace: Introduction
	1.3 Reactions in the Converter
		1.3.1 Thermodynamics of Solutions
		1.3.2 Thermodynamics and Kinetics
		1.3.3 Application of the CaO–FeO–SiO2 Ternary Diagram to the Study of the LD Slags
		1.3.4 Solved Exercises
	1.4 Mass and Energy Balances
	1.5 Kinetics of the Reactions in the Converter
	1.6 Physical–Chemical Characteristics of the LD Slags
		1.6.1 Solved Exercises and Problems
	References
2 The Electric Steelworks
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 The Electric Furnace: Characteristics and Applications
		2.2.1 Production of Pig Iron
		2.2.2 Steel Production
		2.2.3 Ferroalloys
		2.2.4 Ceramic Materials
		2.2.5 Solved Exercises
	2.3 Processes and Reactions in the Electric Furnace
		2.3.1 Smelting (Fusion)
		2.3.2 Refining
		2.3.3 Reduction
		2.3.4 Solved Exercises
	2.4 Design of Electric Furnaces
		2.4.1 Characteristics and Devices of the Furnaces
		2.4.2 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
		2.4.3 Solved Exercises
	References
3 Secondary Metallurgy
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Deoxidation
		3.2.1 Solved Exercises
	3.3 Desulphurizing
		3.3.1 Solved Exercises
	3.4 Vacuum Treatments. Degasification
	3.5 Kinetics of the Refining Processes with Interface Resistances
	3.6 Solved Exercises: Vacuum Treatments. Degasification. Kinetics of the Refining Process with Interface Resistances
	References
4 Solidification of the Steel
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Molding
		4.2.1 Solved Exercises
	4.3 Continuous Casting
		4.3.1 Introduction
		4.3.2 The Continuous Casting Process
		4.3.3 Tertiary Metallurgy: Inclusions
		4.3.4 Development of the Continuous Casting
	References
5 Hot-Working Operations
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Hot Working
		5.2.1 Flow Stresses in the High Temperature Deformation. Constitutive Equation
		5.2.2 The Hot Forming (TH > 0.75·TE)
		5.2.3 Improvements by Hot Forming of Solidification Structures
		5.2.4 Banded Structure (Mechanical Fibering)
		5.2.5 Thermal–Mechanical Treatments with Phase Transformation
	5.3 Forces and Geometrical Relationships in Rolling
		5.3.1 Solved Exercises
	5.4 Rolling Mills
		5.4.1 Solved Exercises
	5.5 Homogenization Heat Treatment (Soaking): Oxidation and Decarburizing of the Steel
		5.5.1 Solved Exercises
	5.6 Superplasticity
		5.6.1 Solved Exercises
	References
6 Cold Rolling. Deep Drawing. Wire Drawing. Coatings
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Cold Rolling of Long Products
	6.3 Metallurgical Fundamentals of the Cold-Working
		6.3.1 Constitutive Laws
		6.3.2 Recovery and Recrystallization. Deep Drawing Steels
		6.3.3 Von Mises Criterion for Anisotropic Materials. Applications
		6.3.4 Forming Limit Diagrams
	6.4 Wire Drawing
		6.4.1 Wire Drawing of Carbon Steels
		6.4.2 General Scheme of the Wire Drawing Process
		6.4.3 Mechanics of the Wire Drawing
		6.4.4 Ductility. Internal Fractures. Cavitation (Structural Damage)
		6.4.5 Relation Structure-Mechanical Properties
	6.5 Coatings
		6.5.1 Solved Exercises
	References
7 Strengths and Uncertainties of the Steel as Structural Material
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Favorable Circumstances Associated to the Production of Iron and Steel
	7.3 Conflictive Aspects that Difficulty the Utilization of Steel
	7.4 Recycling of Non-metallic Materials
	7.5 Energy Efficiency
	7.6 CO2 Emissions
	References
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Appendix 7