Oncogenic Viruses, Volume 1: Fundamentals of Oncoviruses

Front Cover
Oncogenic Viruses Volume 1
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
About the editor
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 General introduction oncogenic viruses: recent knowledge
	References
2 Hepatocellular carcinoma associated with hepatitis B virus and environmental factors
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Hepatocellular carcinoma
		2.2.1 Epidemiology and etiological factors
			2.2.1.1 Incidence
		2.2.2 Mortality
	2.3 Anatomopathological characteristics
		2.3.1 Physiopathology
		2.3.2 Tumor pathology
	2.4 Nature and history of liver carcinogenesis
	2.5 Molecular mechanism of hepatocarcinogenesis
	2.6 Hepatitis B virus
		2.6.1 Epidemiology
	2.7 Virological data
		2.7.1 The viral structure
		2.7.2 Hepatitis B virus genotypes
		2.7.3 The hepatitis B virus replication cycle
	2.8 Natural history of hepatitis B virus infection
	2.9 Antiviral treatment for hepatitis B
	2.10 Hepatocellular carcinoma associated with hepatitis B virus
	2.11 The link between hepatitis B virus and hepatic tumorigenesis
	2.12 Molecular mechanisms of hepatocarcinogenesis induced by hepatitis B virus
	2.13 Hepatocellular carcinoma associated with environmental factors
	2.14 Metabolic and environmental risk factors
		2.14.1 Obesity, body mass index, and body fat
		2.14.2 Hyperlipidemia
		2.14.3 Diabetes
		2.14.4 Tobacco
		2.14.5 Alcohol
		2.14.6 Lack of physical activity
	2.15 Nutritional risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma
		2.15.1 Aflatoxin
		2.15.2 Red meats and processed meats
		2.15.3 Lipids
		2.15.4 Sugary drinks and juices
		2.15.5 Vitamins and minerals
	2.16 Prevention of risk factors
	2.17 Synergy between hepatitis B virus and environmental factors in the etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma
	2.18 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
3 General principals and mechanisms of viral oncogenic and associated cancers (cytomegalovirus, papillomaviruses, and RNA o...
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 General information on oncogenic viruses:cytomegalovirus, papillomaviruses, and RNA oncogenic virus
		3.2.1 Cytomegalovirus
			3.2.1.1 Classification
			3.2.1.2 Epidemiology
			3.2.1.3 Transmission
			3.2.1.4 Structural organization
			3.2.1.5 Replication cycle and replication steps
			3.2.1.6 Relationship between cytomegalovirus and cancer
			3.2.1.7 Virological diagnosis
				3.2.1.7.1 DNA amplification reaction
				3.2.1.7.2 Virus research by culture
				3.2.1.7.3 Indirect diagnosis
			3.2.1.8 Curative treatment (antivirals)
			3.2.1.9 Prophylactic treatment
			3.2.1.10 Viral pathology
				3.2.1.10.1 Cytomegalovirus and cardiovascular pathology
				3.2.1.10.2 Cytomegalovirus and pathology
		3.2.2 Papillomavirus
			3.2.2.1 Classification
			3.2.2.2 Epidemiology of human papillomavirus
			3.2.2.3 Transmission
			3.2.2.4 Structural organization
			3.2.2.5 Genomic organization
			3.2.2.6 Viral cycle
			3.2.2.7 Relationship between papillomaviruses and cancer
			3.2.2.8 Preventive treatment (Vaccine)
			3.2.2.9 Viral pathology
		3.2.3 RNA oncogenic virus
			3.2.3.1 Classification
			3.2.3.2 Human T-lymphotropic virus Type 1
			3.2.3.3 Epidemiology of human T-lymphotropic virus Type 1 infection
			3.2.3.4 Transmission of human T-lymphotropic virus Type 1
			3.2.3.5 Diagnosis of human T-lymphotropic virus Type 1 infection
			3.2.3.6 Treatment of human T-lymphotropic virus Type 1 infection
				3.2.3.6.1 Adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma
				3.2.3.6.2 HTLV-1-related tropical myelopathy and spastic paraparesis
			3.2.3.7 Viral pathology
	3.3 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
4 Infection of HPV and MMTV oncovirus in breast cancer tissues in women
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Infection with human papillomavirus
		4.2.1 General information on human papillomavirus
			4.2.1.1 History
			4.2.1.2 Classification
			4.2.1.3 Structure
			4.2.1.4 Mode of transmission
			4.2.1.5 Viral cycle
		4.2.2 Integration of human papillomavirus into breast cells
			4.2.2.1 Mode of contamination
			4.2.2.2 Immune response
			4.2.2.3 Hormonal response
			4.2.2.4 Cellular response
			4.2.2.5 Escape from immune response
		4.2.3 Human papillomavirus cancer
			4.2.3.1 Evolution of human papillomavirus infection
			4.2.3.2 Human papillomavirus oncogenesis
			4.2.3.3 Prevention of human papillomavirus infections
				4.2.3.3.1 Effectiveness of human papillomavirus vaccination
	4.3 Mouse mammary tumor virus infection
		4.3.1 General information on mouse mammary tumor virus
			4.3.1.1 History
			4.3.1.2 Structure
			4.3.1.3 Mode of transmission
			4.3.1.4 Viral cycle
		4.3.2 Integration of mouse mammary tumor virus into breast cells
			4.3.2.1 Pathogenicity of the virus
			4.3.2.2 Integrating mouse mammary tumor virus into the human genome
		4.3.3 Cancer caused by mouse mammary tumor virus
			4.3.3.1 Mouse mammary tumor virus infection in breast cells leading to cancer
			4.3.3.2 Mouse mammary tumor virus and mammary tumorigenesis
	4.4 Discussion
	4.5 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
5 MicroRNAs associated with Helicobacter pylori and Epstein-Barr virus infections in gastric cancer
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Discovery and origin of microRNAs
		5.2.1 Discovery of the first microRNA: Lin-4
		5.2.2 Nomenclature of microRNA
	5.3 Biogenesis of microRNAs
		5.3.1 MicroRNA genomic localization
		5.3.2 Primary transcripts
		5.3.3 Primary transcripts maturation
			5.3.3.1 Pre-microRNA training
			5.3.3.2 Nuclear export by Exportin 5
			5.3.3.3 Cytoplasmic processing by dicer
			5.3.3.4 Formation of the RNA-induced silencing complex
		5.3.4 Mechanism of action of microRNAs
			5.3.4.1 MicroRNA-mediated gene silencing via RNA-induced silencing complex containing miRNAs
			5.3.4.2 Target mRNA translation repression
	5.4 MicroRNAs in gastric cancer
		5.4.1 Host microRNAs associated with Helicobacter pylori infection
		5.4.2 Host microRNAs associated with Epstein-Barr virus infection
		5.4.3 Epstein-Barr virus-encoded microRNAs
	5.5 Conclusion
	References
6 Breast cancer: epidemiology and viral ethology associated with human papillomavirus and mouse mammary tumor virus
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Breast cancer epidemiology
		6.2.1 In Africa
	6.3 Risk factors for breast cancer
		6.3.1 Gender
		6.3.2 Personal history of breast cancer
		6.3.3 Family history of breast cancer and other cancers
		6.3.4 BRCA** gene mutations
		6.3.5 Dense breasts
		6.3.6 Some genetic disorders
		6.3.7 Other genetic mutations
	6.4 Human papillomaviruses and mouse mammary tumor virus in breast cancer
		6.4.1 Human papillomavirus
			6.4.1.1 The relationship between human papillomavirus and breast cancer
		6.4.2 Mouse mammary tumor virus
			6.4.2.1 The relationship between mouse mammary tumor virus and breast cancer
			6.4.2.2 Superantigen expression
			6.4.2.3 Mechanisms of mouse mammary tumor virus oncogenesis in human breast cancer
	6.5 Conclusion
	References
7 Human papillomavirus infections and cervical cancer
	7.1 Virology of human papillomavirus
		7.1.1 Brief epidemiology and taxonomic classification
	7.2 Molecular architecture of human papillomavirus and features of viral pro-oncogenes and oncoproteins
	7.3 Infection cell cycle and replication
	7.4 Transmission mode and risk factors
	7.5 Pathophysiology, evolution, and natural history of human papillomavirus infection
	7.6 Cervical cancer: a preventable disease
	References
8 Covid-19 and cancer: impact on diagnosis, care and therapy
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Coronavirus disease
		8.2.1 Origin of COVID-19
			8.2.1.1 Structure and genomic organization of SARS-CoV-2
			8.2.1.2 SARS-CoV-2 viral cycle
			8.2.1.3 Global epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection
	8.3 Factors affecting the pathogenesis of the virus
		8.3.1 Gender
		8.3.2 Age
			8.3.2.1 Impact of COVID-19 in cancer patients
			8.3.2.2 Impact on cancer diagnosis
	8.4 The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cancer care
		8.4.1 Chemotherapy
		8.4.2 Surgery
		8.4.3 Immunotherapy
	8.5 The different types of anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccine
	8.6 SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in cancer patients
	8.7 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
9 The role of DNA oncoviruses and its association with human cancer
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 Deoxyribonucleic acid
		9.1.2 Gene
		9.1.3 Cancer
		9.1.4 Oncogenes
	9.2 History, discovery, and types
	9.3 Epidemiology
		9.3.1 Epstein-Barr virus
		9.3.2 Human papillomavirus
		9.3.3 Hepatitis B virus
		9.3.4 Hepatitis C virus
		9.3.5 Human T cell lymphotropic virus 1
		9.3.6 Human herpesvirus 8
		9.3.7 Merkel cell polyomavirus
	9.4 Viral proteins involved
	9.5 General mechanism by which oncovirus induces cancer in DNA
	9.6 Mechanism of action for each oncoviruses
		9.6.1 Epstein-Barr virus
		9.6.2 Human papillomavirus
		9.6.3 Hepatitis B virus
		9.6.4 Human herpesvirus 8
		9.6.5 Merkel cell polyomavirus
	9.7 Genome and structure of viruses
		9.7.1 Epstein-Barr virus
		9.7.2 Human herpesvirus 8
		9.7.3 Human papillomavirus
		9.7.4 Merkel cell polyomavirus
		9.7.5 Hepatitis B virus
	9.8 Cancers associated with DNA oncoviruses
	9.9 Therapeutic options for DNA oncoviruses
	9.10 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
10 RNA oncoviruses and their association with cancer implications
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Virus involvement in cancer
	10.2 Oncoviruses and their variants
	10.3 Timeline of oncoviruses
	10.4 Endogenous and exogenous retroviruses
	10.5 Viral carcinogenesis
	10.6 Reverse transcription and recognition of proto-oncogenes
		10.6.1 Reverse transcription
		10.6.2 Proto-oncogene
	10.7 Human T cell lymphotropic virus 1
		10.7.1 HTLV-1 epidemiology and prevalence
		10.7.2 HTLV-1 etiology
		10.7.3 HTLV-1 pathophysiology
		10.7.4 HTLV-1 transmission
		10.7.5 HTLV-1 replication
		10.7.6 HTLV-1 mechanism
		10.7.7 HTLV diagnosis
	10.8 Hepatitis C virus
		10.8.1 Hepatitis C virus epidemiology and prevalence
		10.8.2 HCV etiology
		10.8.3 HCV pathophysiology
		10.8.4 HCV transmission
		10.8.5 Hepatitis C virus pathogenesis
		10.8.6 Hepatitis C virus mechanism
		10.8.7 Hepatitis C virus diagnosis
	10.9 Human immunodeficiency virus
		10.9.1 HIV epidemiology and prevalence
		10.9.2 HIV etiology
		10.9.3 HIV pathophysiology
		10.9.4 HIV transmission
		10.9.5 HIV replication
		10.9.6 Mechanisms underlying HIV-1 pathogenicity in epithelial cells
		10.9.7 HIV evaluation and diagnosis
	10.10 Conclusion
	Abbreviation
	Acknowledgment
	References
11 Evolution of viruses: tumor complications
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Oncovirus and its prevalence
	11.3 Epidemiology
	11.4 Discovery of oncovirus and its timeline
	11.5 Mechanism of oncovirus
	11.6 Classification of oncoviruses
		11.6.1 Epstein-Barr virus
			11.6.1.1 Oncoproteins of Epstein-Barr virus
		11.6.2 Hepatitis B virus
		11.6.3 Human Herpesvirus 8
			11.6.3.1 Human Herpesvirus-8-associated tumors
		11.6.4 Human papillomavirus
		11.6.5 Human T-cell lymphotropic virus 1
		11.6.6 Hepatitis C virus
		11.6.7 Merkel cell polyomavirus
	11.7 Genes associated with oncogenes and virus tumor complications
		11.7.1 Genes and their functions
			11.7.1.1 E1A
			11.7.1.2 E1B
			11.7.1.3 BRCA1
			11.7.1.4 BRCA2
			11.7.1.5 TP53
	11.8 Causes and prevention
	11.9 Therapies and treatment
	11.10 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
12 HPV oncovirus: molecular biology and mechanism of action
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Recent progress
	12.3 Discussion
	References
13 Oncogenic viruses and mechanism of oncogenesis: study of oncogenic characteristics of HTLV-1 and HHV-8 viruses
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 Discovery of oncogenic viruses
		13.1.2 The infections concerned
		13.1.3 Consequences of viral infection
		13.1.4 The molecular basis of cancer
		13.1.5 Gene families involved in carcinogenesis
			13.1.5.1 Oncogenes
		13.1.6 Tumor suppressor or antioncogene genes
		13.1.7 Oncogenic viruses
	13.2 Molecular aspects of human herpesvirus 8 and associated tumors
		13.2.1 Human herpesvirus 8 oncogenic viral genes and tumorigenesis
		13.2.2 HHV-8-related diseases
	13.3 Molecular aspects of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 and associated tumors
		13.3.1 HTLV-1 oncogenic viral genes and tumorigenesis
		13.3.2 Diseases associated with HTLV-1
	13.4 Conclusion
	References
14 Hepatitis C virus and hepatocellular carcinoma
	14.1 Introduction
		14.1.1 The life cycle of the hepatitis C virus
	14.2 The drug target of hepatitis C virus
	14.3 Progression from hepatitis C virus to hepatocellular carcinoma
	14.4 Hepatocellular carcinoma
	14.5 Drugs and drug targets in hepatocellular carcinoma
	14.6 Diagnosis of hepatitis C virus
	14.7 Tests for liver damage
		14.7.1 Hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosis and treatment
	14.8 Conclusion
	References
15 Prostate cancer and viral infections: epidemiological and clinical indications
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Prostate cancer: clinical aspects
		15.2.1 Prostate cancer detection, diagnosis, and staging
		15.2.2 Prostate cancer epidemiology worldwide
	15.3 Viral Infections as a risk factor for prostate cancer
		15.3.1 Mouse mammary tumor virus
		15.3.2 Human papillomavirus and prostate cancer
	References
16 Oncogenic human virus associated with prostate cancer: molecular epidemiology of Human Papillomavirus and Epstein-Barr virus
	16.1 Introduction
		16.1.1 History, taxonomy, and classification of human papillomavirus and Epstein-Barr virus
		16.1.2 Molecular epidemiology of HPV and EBV associated with prostate cancer worldwide
		16.1.3 Epidemiology of prostate cancer worldwide
		16.1.4 Human papillomavirus and prostate cancer
		16.1.5 Epstein-Barr virus
		16.1.6 Epidemiology of human papillomavirus and Epstein-Barr virus coinfection
		16.1.7 Implications and associations between HPV and EBV prostate cancer
		16.1.8 Coinfection with HPV and EBV
	16.2 Conclusion
	References
17 Epidemiology of gynecological and mammary cancers in Africa: viral etiology and risk factors
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Generalities about cancer
		17.2.1 The definition of cancer
		17.2.2 The origin of cancer cells
		17.2.3 Carcinogenesis
		17.2.4 Gynecological and mammary cancers
			17.2.4.1 Breast cancer
				17.2.4.1.1 Oncogenesis of breast cancer
			17.2.4.2 Cervical cancer
				17.2.4.2.1 Oncogenesis of cervical cancer
			17.2.4.3 Ovarian cancer
			17.2.4.4 Endometrial cancer
			17.2.4.5 Vulvar cancer
			17.2.4.6 Vaginal cancer
	17.3 Epidemiology of gynecomammary cancers in Africa
		17.3.1 Gynecomammary cancers in different continents
		17.3.2 Gynecomammary cancer in Africa
		17.3.3 Incidence and deaths linked to gynecomammary cancers in North Africa
			17.3.3.1 The top ten cancers in Northern Africa
		17.3.4 Incidence and mortality rates of gynecomammary cancers in North Africa
	17.4 Overview of the molecular oncogenesis of gynecomammary cancer
	17.5 Oncoviruses associated with gynecomammary cancer
		17.5.1 Human papillomavirus
		17.5.2 Human mammary tumor virus
		17.5.3 Epstein-Barr virus
			17.5.3.1 Generalities
		17.5.4 Adenoviruses
			17.5.4.1 Generalities about adenoviruses
		17.5.5 Human polyomaviruses
			17.5.5.1 Generalities about human polyomaviruses
				17.5.5.1.1 JC virus
				17.5.5.1.2 BK virus
				17.5.5.1.3 Merkel cell polyomavirus
	Acknowledgments
	References
18 Involvement of BK polyomavirus in genitourinary cancers
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 The Polyomaviridae family
		18.2.1 History of discovery
	18.3 BK polyomavirus
		18.3.1 Epidemiology
		18.3.2 Modes of transmission
		18.3.3 Virological characteristics
		18.3.4 Structure of the viral particle
		18.3.5 The viral capsid
		18.3.6 Genomic organization of BK polyomavirus
		18.3.7 Risk factors
	18.4 Involvement of BK in genitourinary cancer
		18.4.1 The prostate
		18.4.2 The bladder
	18.5 The kidney
	18.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
19 Kidney cancer associated with Epstein-Barr virus
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Epstein-Barr virus
		19.2.1 Morphology
			19.2.1.1 The Epstein-Barr virus family
			19.2.1.2 Transmission mode
			19.2.1.3 Risk factors
			19.2.1.4 Viral structure
			19.2.1.5 Genomic organization
			19.2.1.6 Viral replication
			19.2.1.7 Target cells
	19.3 The association between kidney cancer and Epstein-Barr virus
	19.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
20 The involvement of human papillomavirus in breast cancer in general and the different prognostic biomarkers in triple-ne...
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Anatomy of the mammary gland
	20.3 Epidemiology
	20.4 Human papillomavirus
		20.4.1 Route of human papillomavirus infection
		20.4.2 Association between human papillomavirus infection and breast cancer
	20.5 Triple-negative breast cancer
		20.5.1 Epidemiology
		20.5.2 TP53 gene, p53 protein, and Ki-67
		20.5.3 Epidermal growth factor receptor, c-KIT, and cytokeratins (CK 5/6, CK 14, CK 17, CK 56)
		20.5.4 Vascular endothelial growth factor
		20.5.5 Androgen receptor
			20.5.5.1 Homologous recombination defect and BRCA1/BRCA2 mutations
			20.5.5.2 In situ hybridization of the mRNA
	20.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
21 Hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes associated with Helicobacter pylori and Epstein–Barr virus infections in gast...
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 DNA methylation in gastric carcinogenesis
	21.3 Helicobacter pylori and Epstein–Barr virus inducing aberrant methylation in the promoter of tumor suppressor genes
		21.3.1 Helicobacter pylori inducing aberrant methylation in the promoter of tumor suppressor genes
		21.3.2 Helicobacter pylori inducing aberrant methylation in the promoter of tumor suppressor genes via chronic inflammation
		21.3.3 Epstein–Barr virus inducing aberrant methylation in the promoter of tumor suppressor genes
	21.4 Helicobacter pylori coinfection with Epstein–Barr virus inducing aberrant methylation
	21.5 Conclusion
	References
22 Etiology of human papillomavirus in cervical cancer and infection mechanism
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Human papillomavirus cervical cancer risk factors
	22.3 Viral etiology of cervical cancer
	22.4 Biology of papillomavirus
		22.4.1 Structural and genomic organization of human papillomavirus
		22.4.2 Viral Infection and expression of viral oncoproteins
			22.4.2.1 Viral cycle of human papillomaviruses
				22.4.2.1.1 The encounter and attachment of the virus and the target cell
				22.4.2.1.2 Entry and decapsidation
				22.4.2.1.3 Expression of viral genes and amplification of the viral genome
				22.4.2.1.4 Assembly and release of newly formed virions
	22.5 Interaction between E6 and p53 in the cancer pathway
		22.5.1 P53 and cell cycle control
	22.6 Consequences of the E6 and p53 interaction
	22.7 Interaction between E7 and pRb in the cancer pathway
	22.8 Assessment of the joint action of oncoproteins E6 and E7
	22.9 Vaccination is a way to fight against cervical cancer
	22.10 Conclusion
	References
23 In vivo gene therapy with p53 or p21 adenovirus for prostate cancer
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Protein P53
		23.2.1 History
		23.2.2 P53 a gatekeeper
		23.2.3 Structure of the P53 protein
		23.2.4 Regulation of P53
			23.2.4.1 Phosphorylation of P53
			23.2.4.2 Acetylation of P53
			23.2.4.3 Ubiquitination of P53
			23.2.4.4 Other Modifications of P53
			23.2.4.5 Interaction of P53 –MDM2
		23.2.5 Cellular localization
		23.2.6 The functions of P53
	23.3 Cell cycle arrest
		23.3.1 Cell cycle arrest in the G1 phase
		23.3.2 Cell cycle arrest in the G2 phase
			23.3.2.1 Apoptosis
			23.3.2.2 Extracellular signaling
	23.4 Protein P21
		23.4.1 P21 and cancer
	23.5 Adenovirus
		23.5.1 Nomenclature
		23.5.2 Structure of adenovirus
		23.5.3 Attachment and entry of the virus into the host cell
		23.5.4 Early gene transcription
		23.5.5 Genome replication
	23.6 In vivo gene therapy with P53 or P21 adenovirus for prostate cancer
	23.7 Conclusion
	References
Index
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