On the Origin of Planets: By Means of Natural Simple Processes

Contents......Page 10
Preface......Page 6
An Historical Sketch of the Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Planets......Page 20
Laplace and the Nebular Model......Page 23
The Chamberlin–Moulton Theory......Page 26
The Jeans Tidal Theory......Page 27
The New Solar Nebula Theory......Page 34
General Conclusions......Page 44
1.1 Locations of Stars......Page 48
1.2 Stellar Material......Page 51
1.3.1 The distances of nearby stars......Page 52
1.3.2 Distance measurements using variable stars......Page 54
1.4 The Temperature of Stars......Page 56
1.5 Stellar Radii......Page 59
1.6 Estimating Stellar Masses......Page 60
1.7 The Physical Properties of Main-Sequence Stars......Page 61
1.9 Summary......Page 62
2.1 Star-Forming Regions......Page 66
2.2 The Formation of Dense Cool Clouds......Page 68
2.3 Maser Emission from Star-Forming Regions......Page 73
2.4 The Process of Protostar Formation......Page 74
2.5 The Formation of Binary Systems......Page 75
2.6 Modelling the Collapse of a Cloud......Page 79
2.7 The Spin of Stars......Page 80
2.8 Summary......Page 83
3.1 The Journey to the Main Sequence......Page 86
3.2 Energy Generation in Main-Sequence Stars......Page 89
3.3 Leaving the Main Sequence for Lowand Moderate-Mass Stars......Page 93
3.4 The Evolution of Higher-Mass Stars......Page 97
3.5 Summary......Page 100
4.1 Embedded Clusters......Page 102
4.2 The Formation of Massive Stars......Page 105
4.3 The Embedded Cluster Environment and Binary Star Frequencies......Page 107
4.4 The Progress of Star Formation in a Galactic Cluster......Page 108
4.5 Summary......Page 109
5.1 Planets Orbiting Neutron Stars......Page 112
5.2 The Characteristics of Orbits......Page 115
5.3 Planets Around Main-Sequence Stars; Doppler-Shift Detection......Page 116
5.4 The Direct Imaging of Exoplanets......Page 124
5.5 Exoplanets and the Solar System......Page 129
5.6 Summary......Page 130
6. The Formation of Planets: The Capture Theory......Page 132
6.1 The Interaction of a Star with a Protostar......Page 133
6.2 The Interaction of a Star with a High-Density Region......Page 137
6.3 Summary......Page 140
7. Orbital Evolution......Page 142
7.1 The Nature of the Disk......Page 143
7.2.1 Viscosity-based resistance......Page 146
7.2.2 Mass-based resistance......Page 147
7.3 Modelling the Medium and Details of the Calculation Method......Page 148
7.4 Calculations of Orbital Decay and Round-off......Page 152
7.5 Orbits of High Eccentricity......Page 154
7.7 Simple Ratios of Orbital Periods......Page 160
7.8 Stellar Spin Axes......Page 161
7.9 Summary......Page 164
8.1 Observations and Observational Constraints......Page 166
8.2 Initial Formation Statistics......Page 169
8.3 The Disruption of Planetary Systems......Page 173
8.4 Summary......Page 176
9. Satellite Formation......Page 178
9.1 Angular Momentum Considerations......Page 179
9.2 The Form of the Disk......Page 182
9.3. The Settling of Dust......Page 184
9.4 The Formation of Satellitesimals......Page 188
9.5 Satellite Formation......Page 191
9.6 Comments......Page 194
9.7 Summary......Page 195
10.1 The Planets......Page 198
10.1.1 The terrestrial planets......Page 199
10.1.2 The major planets......Page 201
10.1.3 Tilts of planetary spin axes......Page 202
10.2 Satellites......Page 204
10.2.1 The satellites of Jupiter......Page 205
10.2.2 The satellites of Saturn......Page 209
10.2.3 The satellites of Uranus......Page 214
10.2.4 The satellites of Neptune......Page 216
10.2.5 Other satellites......Page 218
10.3 Dwarf Planets and the Kuiper Belt......Page 219
Ceres......Page 221
Pluto......Page 222
Haumea, Makemake and Eris......Page 223
10.4.1 Types of asteroids and their orbits......Page 224
10.4.2 The composition of asteroids......Page 227
10.5 Comets......Page 228
10.6 Summary......Page 230
11.1 The Precession of Planetary Orbits......Page 232
11.2 Close Interactions of Planets and the Tilts of Spin Axes......Page 233
11.3 The Problem of the Terrestrial Planets......Page 237
11.4 Deuterium and the Major Planets......Page 238
11.5 Earth and Venus......Page 243
11.6 Summary......Page 248
12.1 The Earth–Moon Relationship......Page 250
12.2 Satellites of the Colliding Planets......Page 253
12.3. Features of the Moon......Page 255
12.4 The Hemispherical Asymmetry of the Moon......Page 259
12.5 The Evolution of the Moon’s Orbit......Page 262
12.6 Summary......Page 264
13.1 Larger Solid Bodies of the Solar System......Page 266
13.2.1 The hemispherical asymmetry of Mars......Page 268
13.2.2 Mars — now and in the past......Page 270
13.2.3 The Martian spin axis and hemispherical asymmetry......Page 273
13.3 Mercury as a Satellite......Page 275
13.4 The Orbits, Spins and Tilts of Mercury and Mars......Page 279
13.5 Summary......Page 280
14.2 The Strange Satellites of Neptune......Page 282
14.3 The Neptune –Triton–Pluto Relationship Explained......Page 283
14.4 Summary......Page 286
15.1.1 Ceres......Page 288
15.1.2 The outer dwarf planets......Page 289
15.2.1 Asteroids......Page 292
15.2.2 Comets and the Kuiper Belt......Page 295
15.2.3 Long-period comets and the Oort cloud......Page 296
15.2.4 The survival of the Oort cloud......Page 298
15.3 Summary......Page 299
16. Meteorites: Their Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 302
16.1 The Broad Classes of Meteorites......Page 303
16.2.1 Stony meteorites......Page 305
16.2.2 Iron meteorites......Page 309
16.2.3 Stony-iron meteorites......Page 310
16.3 Interpreting the Physical Properties and Appearance of Meteorites......Page 311
16.4 Summary......Page 313
17.1 Isotopes and Anomalies......Page 316
17.2 The Planetary Collision and Nuclear Reactions......Page 318
17.4 Individual Isotopic Anomalies and How......Page 322
17.4.1 The oxygen anomaly......Page 323
17.4.2 The magnesium anomaly......Page 326
17.4.3 Neon in meteorites......Page 329
17.4.4.1 Silicon in silicon carbide......Page 331
17.4.4.2 Carbon and nitrogen in silicon carbide......Page 333
17.4.4.3 Neon in silicon carbide......Page 335
17.6 Summary......Page 338
18.1 What Constitutes a Good Theory?......Page 342
18.2 Protostars and Stars......Page 345
18.3 Creating the Conditions for the Capture-Theory Process......Page 347
18.4 The Capture-Theory Process......Page 348
18.5 The Frequency of Planetary Systems......Page 349
18.7 The Tilts of Spin Axes of the Planets and Stars......Page 350
18.8 A Planetary Collision — Earth and Venus......Page 351
18.9 The Moon, Mars and Mercury......Page 352
18.11 Small Bodies of the Solar System......Page 354
18.12 The Characteristics of Meteorites......Page 355
18.13 Conclusions......Page 356
Appendix A: Angular Momentum......Page 360
Appendix B: Equipotential Surfaces of a Tidally Distorted Star......Page 363
Appendix C: The Instability of a Gaseous Filament......Page 365
Appendix D: The Jeans Critical Mass......Page 367
Appendix E: The Lynden-Bell and Pringle Mechanism......Page 369
Appendix F: Grains in Molecular Clouds......Page 371
Appendix G: The Structure of a Spiral Galaxy......Page 375
Appendix H: The Centre of Mass and the Orbits of Binary Stars......Page 377
Appendix I: The Doppler Effect......Page 380
Appendix J: Atomic Energy Levels and Stellar Spectra......Page 382
Appendix K: Stellar Masses from Observations of Binary Systems......Page 385
Appendix L: Smoothed-Particle Hydrodynamics......Page 388
Appendix M: Free-Fall Collapse......Page 392
Appendix N: Fragmentation and Binary Characteristics......Page 395
Appendix O: Spin Slowing Due to a Stellar wind......Page 398
Appendix P: The Virial Theorem and Kelvin–Helmholtz Contraction......Page 400
Appendix Q: The Lifetime of Stars on the Main Sequence......Page 403
Appendix R: The Eddington Accretion Mechanism......Page 405
Appendix S: The Mass and Orbit of an Exoplanet......Page 407
The Force Due to Radiation Pressure......Page 408
The Poynting–Robertson Effect......Page 409
The Cross-Section of Dust per Unit Volume of the Medium......Page 411
The Effect of Stellar Radiation......Page 412
The Effect of a Stellar Wind......Page 413
Variation of β with Time......Page 414
The Exponential Distribution......Page 416
The Decay of the Disk......Page 417
Selecting Protostars and Stars......Page 419
Positioning Stars......Page 420
Appendix X: Disrupting a Planetary System......Page 423
The Rate of Growth of a Dust Particle by Brownian Motion......Page 430
The Speed of a Small Spherical Particle Falling Towards the Mean Plane......Page 431
Density to Withstand Tidal Disruption......Page 433
Appendix Z: From Satellitesimals to Satellites......Page 434
Elastic Hysteresis......Page 438
Tidal Stress in Io......Page 439
Appendix AB: The Trojan Asteroids......Page 442
Appendix AC: Orbital Precession......Page 446
Appendix AD: The Temperature Generated by Colliding Planets......Page 448
Uniform Streams and the Rankine-Hugoniot Equations......Page 449
Uniform Streams and the Von Neumann– Richtmyer Computational Method......Page 451
Limits of Specific Internal Energy......Page 455
Colliding Model Planets......Page 457
Appendix AE: Heating by Deuterium-Based Reactions......Page 461
Appendix AF: The Thermal Evolution of the Moon......Page 463
Appendix AG: The Abrasion of a Hemisphere of the Moon......Page 467
Appendix AH: The Rounding-off of a Highly Eccentric Satellite Orbit......Page 469
Appendix AI: Continental Drift on Mars......Page 473
Appendix AJ: The Oort Cloud and Perturbing Stars......Page 476
Appendix AK: Planetary Perturbation of New Comets......Page 480
Appendix AL: Reactions and Decays......Page 482
Cooling Rates......Page 487
Grain Formation......Page 489
Index......Page 492