Oceanography of the Mediterranean Sea: An Introductory Guide

Front Cover
Oceanography of the Mediterranean Sea
Oceanography of the Mediterranean SeaAn Introductory GuideEdited byKatrin SchroederConsiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche-Istit ...
Contents
List of contributors
About the editors
1 - Introduction
	1.1 The Mediterranean Sea, a “miniature ocean”
	1.2 Book structure and contents
	1.3 Learning objectives at a glance
	References
2 - Mediterranean Sea evolution and present-day physiography
	2.1 Origin of the Mediterranean Sea
		2.1.1 Kinematic and geodynamical overview
		2.1.2 Messinian salinity crisis: an extraordinary event
	2.2 Dimensions and seafloor topography
	2.3 Sedimentation on continental margins
		2.3.1 Tectonic movements and sedimentation
		2.3.2 Climate and sedimentation
	2.4 Concluding remarks
	References
3 - Mediterranean climate: past, present and future
	3.1 General climate and morphological characteristics of the Mediterranean basin
	3.2 Instrumental observations, satellites, and reanalyses
	3.3 Climate models and their evolution
		3.3.1 Components of climate models and model hierarchy
		3.3.2 Climate modeling international programs
	3.4 Heat and moisture balance at Mediterranean regional scale and relation to surface climate
		3.4.1 Heat budget
		3.4.2 Moisture budget
	3.5 The atmospheric circulation of the subtropics and mid-latitudes
		3.5.1 The Mediterranean basin as a transitional region
		3.5.2 The Mediterranean storm track
		3.5.3 Remote factors affecting the Mediterranean climate
	3.6 Evolution of Mediterranean climate
		3.6.1 Astronomical forcing
		3.6.2 The formation of the Mediterranean and geophysical forcing of Mediterranean climate
		3.6.3 The last million years: the glacial cycles
		3.6.4 The last millennia: the historical period
		3.6.5 Anthropogenic climate change
	References
4 - The forcings of the Mediterranean Sea and the physical properties of its water masses
	4.1 The forcings of the Mediterranean Sea
		4.1.1 Exchanges through the strait of Gibraltar
		4.1.2 Climatological mean surface flux fields
			4.1.2.1 Wind stress
			4.1.2.2 Heat flux
			4.1.2.3 Freshwater flux
		4.1.3 Temporal variability
	4.2 The thermohaline properties of the Mediterranean water masses
		4.2.1 Water masses, water types, and their representation
		4.2.2 Water mass analysis and the interpretation of the TS diagram
		4.2.3 Water mass properties and distribution in the Mediterranean Sea
			4.2.3.1 Atlantic water
			4.2.3.2 Intermediate water
			4.2.3.3 Deep water
	4.3 Other water mass tracers
	References
5 - Mediterranean Sea level
	5.1 General concepts about sea level
	5.2 Techniques for measuring sea level
		5.2.1 Tide gauges
		5.2.2 Satellite altimetry
		5.2.3 Sea level proxies
		5.2.4 Supplementary techniques for understanding sea level changes
	5.3 Past evolution of Mediterranean Sea level
		5.3.1 Holocene sea-level changes and the role of isostatic-related subsidence
		5.3.2 Decadal to centennial sea level trends since the late 19th century
	5.4 Future projections of Mediterranean Sea level
	References
6 - Surface wave and sea surface dynamics in the Mediterranean
	6.1 General concepts about waves, definitions and phenomenology
	6.2 Tides and seiches
		6.2.1 Generalities and basic definitions
		6.2.2 Tides in the Mediterranean Sea
	6.3 Marine storms and coastal floods in the Mediterranean Sea
		6.3.1 Storm surges
		6.3.2 Planetary scale forcing of storm surges
		6.3.3 Synoptic scale forcing of storm surges
		6.3.4 Mesoscale forcing of storm surges
		6.3.5 Prediction of storm surges
		6.3.6 Coastal floods in future climates
	6.4 Wind generated waves
		6.4.1 Generalities and basic definitions
		6.4.2 Wind and waves regimes in the Mediterranean Sea
		6.4.3 Waves forecasts in the Mediterranean Sea
		6.4.4 Past and future evolution of wind-generated waves
	6.5 Tsunamis
		6.5.1 Historical events in the Mediterranean Sea
		6.5.2 Source, propagation and tsunami models
		6.5.3 Meteotsunamis
		6.5.4 Early warning systems
	References
7 - Dense and deep water formation processes and Mediterranean overturning circulation
	7.1 General concepts
	7.2 Dense/deep water characteristics and formation rates
	7.3 Observations of deep/dense water formation in the Mediterranean Sea
		7.3.1 Convection and deep water formation in the Gulf of Lion: five decades of observations
		7.3.2 Deep water formation in the eastern Mediterranean
			7.3.2.1 The Adriatic Sea as a main contributor to Eastern Mediterranean deep waters
			7.3.2.2 The Aegean Sea as an intermittent deep water source to the eastern Mediterranean
		7.3.3 Formation of intermediate water masses
			7.3.3.1 Levantine intermediate water
			7.3.3.2 Cretan intermediate water
			7.3.3.3 Western intermediate water
			7.3.3.4 Tyrrhenian intermediate water
		7.3.4 Dense shelf water formation and cascading
			7.3.4.1 Gulf of Lion
			7.3.4.2 Adriatic Sea
	7.4 Theory of dense/deep water formation processes: general concepts
		7.4.1 Theory of dense/deep water formation in the open ocean
		7.4.2 Dense water formation on the shelf and their cascading into the deep ocean
	7.5 Numerical modeling of deep/dense water formation
		7.5.1 Dense/deep water formation numerical modeling in the open ocean
		7.5.2 Dense/deep water cascading numerical modeling
	7.6 The Mediterranean overturning circulation: structure and dynamics
		7.6.1 Zonal overturning
		7.6.2 Western Mediterranean overturning
		7.6.3 Eastern Mediterranean overturning
		7.6.4 Comparison of the Mediterranean with the North Atlantic overturning
	7.7 Concluding remarks
	References
8 - Fronts, eddies and mesoscale circulation in the Mediterranean Sea
	8.1 General concepts
	8.2 Mediterranean Sea mesoscale variability derived from satellite altimetry
		8.2.1 Mediterranean sea field dependency on the satellite constellation
		8.2.2 Quantifying spatial and temporal variability
	8.3 Eddies, fronts and vertical velocity
		8.3.1 Vertical velocity and fronts in the Mediterranean Sea
		8.3.2 Eddy detection, tracking and characterisation
	8.4 Future perspectives
	References
9 - Recent changes in the Mediterranean Sea
	9.1 General concepts about Mediterranean water masses and their circulation
	9.2 Changes observed in the Eastern Mediterranean water masses
		9.2.1 Formation of dense waters and the Eastern Mediterranean Transient (EMT)
		9.2.2 Decadal oscillations of the upper thermohaline circulation in the EMED
		9.2.3 Post-EMT status in the EMED
	9.3 Changes observed in the Western Mediterranean water masses
		9.3.1 The twentieth century: gradual warming and salinification
		9.3.2 Changes during the 21st century: the Western Mediterranean Transition (WMT)
	9.4 Long-term trends and climate change
	9.5 Impact on the Mediterranean-Atlantic system
		9.5.1 Mediterranean outflow water (MOW)
		9.5.2 Following the MOW signal: from the strait of Gibraltar to the North Atlantic
		9.5.3 MOW trends and variability
	References
10 - Mediterranean observing and forecasting systems
	10.1 The emergence of operational oceanography in the Mediterranean Sea
	10.2 The framework for ocean observing and the essential ocean variables
	10.3 Observing systems operating in the Mediterranean Sea
		10.3.1 Satellites
		10.3.2 In-situ and land-based remote sensing observations: systems and international coordination programs
			10.3.2.1 Research vessels
			10.3.2.2 Moorings
			10.3.2.3 Tide gauges and coastal stations
			10.3.2.4 Drifters
			10.3.2.5 Profiling floats
			10.3.2.6 Gliders
			10.3.2.7 HF radars
			10.3.2.8 FerryBox
			10.3.2.9 Animal tagging
			10.3.2.10 EuroGOOS and MONGOOS
		10.3.3 Multi-platform regional and coastal observing systems
			10.3.3.1 MOOSE
			10.3.3.2 SOCIB
			10.3.3.3 POSEIDON
			10.3.3.4 Other sustained multi-platform observing systems and intensive surveys
	10.4 Forecasting the Mediterranean Sea
		10.4.1 General concepts
			10.4.1.1 Hydrodynamics
			10.4.1.2 Storm surges and meteotsunamis
			10.4.1.3 Wind waves
			10.4.1.4 Biogeochemistry
			10.4.1.5 Data assimilation as a tool to integrate models and observations
			10.4.1.6 Reaching coastal scales
			10.4.1.7 Coupling hydrodynamics, wave, hydrology, and atmospheric components
		10.4.2 Illustration of some of the Mediterranean regional ocean prediction systems
			10.4.2.1 Copernicus marine environment monitoring service
			10.4.2.2 SOCIB
			10.4.2.3 Poseidon
			10.4.2.4 Other prediction systems
	10.5 Data management and distribution
	10.6 Concluding remarks
	References
11 - Mediterranean Sea general biogeochemistry
	11.1 Dissolved oxygen distribution and ventilation
		11.1.1 Introduction
		11.1.2 Measurements of oxygen and models contribution
		11.1.3 Dissolved oxygen distribution in the Mediterranean Sea
		11.1.4 Ventilation mechanisms
		11.1.5 Long term trends: in situ observation and model contribution
	11.2 Dissolved nutrients: forms, sources, distribution, and dynamics
		11.2.1 Introduction
		11.2.2 Nutrient forms and sources
		11.2.3 Nutrients distribution
		11.2.4 Impact of the circulation on nutrients and biological dynamics
		11.2.5 Anomalous N:P ratio
		11.2.6 The anthropogenic impact
	11.3 Dissolved organic matter: relevance, distribution, and dynamics
		11.3.1 Introduction, definitions, and relevance
		11.3.2 DOC distribution in the Mediterranean Sea, a basin scale view
			11.3.2.1 Surface layer
			11.3.2.2 Seasonal variability
			11.3.2.3 Intermediate layer
			11.3.2.4 Deep layer
		11.3.3 Properties of Mediterranean DOM
			11.3.3.1 Optical properties
			11.3.3.2 Molecular composition
		11.3.4 External sources of DOM
			11.3.4.1 River run-off
			11.3.4.2 Atmospheric input
	11.4 Inorganic carbon chemistry and acidification in the Mediterranean Sea: concepts, particularities, and distribution
		11.4.1 General definitions and current challenges of the seawater CO2 system
		11.4.2 General processes affecting the CO2 system with a Mediterranean overview
		11.4.3 Particularities and distribution of the CO2 system in the Mediterranean Sea
		11.4.4 Surface pCO2 and air-sea CO2 fluxes
		11.4.5 Anthropogenic carbon and ocean acidification in the Mediterranean Sea
		11.4.6 Current biogeochemical monitoring activities with focus on CO2 variables in the Mediterranean Sea
	11.5 Identifying Mediterranean Sea water masses using biogeochemistry
	11.6 Future projections and threats to Mediterranean biogeochemistry
		11.6.1 Climate change and its impact on the oceans' biogeochemistry and Mediterranean peculiarities
		11.6.2 Expected changes of biogeochemical conditions in the Mediterranean Sea
		11.6.3 Regional differences on the effect of climate change in the various Mediterranean subbasins
	References
12 - Active geological processes in the Mediterranean Sea
	12.1 General concepts
	12.2 Sedimentary processes from the coast to the deep sea
		12.2.1 Coastal environments
		12.2.2 Deep-water environments
			12.2.2.1 Submarine landslides
			12.2.2.2 Turbidity currents
			12.2.2.3 Near seafloor currents and contourites
			12.2.2.4 Sedimentation related to dense-shelf water cascading and open-ocean convection
	12.3 Submarine and insular volcanoes
	12.4 Cold seeps: diversity, distribution and controls
		12.4.1 Key-points on submarine cold seeps
		12.4.2 Diversity of widespread cold seeps
		12.4.3 Mud volcanoes
		12.4.4 Pockmarks
		12.4.5 Methane-derived authigenic carbonate structures
		12.4.6 Brine seeps
		12.4.7 Gas hydrates
		12.4.8 Processes controlling the formation of gas and its migration
	12.5 Geohazards and ecosystems
		12.5.1 Geohazards
		12.5.2 Ecosystems
	References
13 - The Mediterranean Sea in the Anthropocene
	13.1 General concepts
	13.2 Reduction of seafloor integrity
		13.2.1 Trawling
		13.2.2 Ghost fishing
		13.2.3 Littering and dumping
		13.2.4 Direct seafloor modifications
		13.2.5 Ammunitions on the seafloor
	13.3 Modification of coastal lithosomes
		13.3.1 Deltas
		13.3.2 Prodeltas
		13.3.3 Lagoons
		13.3.4 Ebb and flood tidal deltas
		13.3.5 Drowned coastal barrier islands use as borrow places to extract sands
	13.4 Man-made alterations of the Mediterranean hydrological cycle
	13.5 The load of human activities in changing Mediterranean biogeochemical dynamics
	13.6 Dynamic of pollutants in the Mediterranean Sea
		13.6.1 The European directives (WFD and MSFD)
		13.6.2 The biogeochemistry of contaminants: geomorphological interferences
		13.6.3 Heavy metals in seawater, sediments, and organisms
		13.6.4 Organic pollutants in seawater, sediments, and organisms
		13.6.5 Emerging pollutants: pharmaceutical products, drugs, etc.
	13.7 Plastisphere in the Mediterranean Sea
	13.8 Concluding remarks
	References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	Z
Back Cover