Nuclear air cleaning handbook : design, construction, and testing of high-efficiency air cleaning systems for nuclear application

1.1 Introduction......Page 1
Table of Contents......Page 0
1.2.1 Random errors......Page 3
Standard error in the mean (sm)......Page 5
1.2.3 Environmental disturbances......Page 6
Variation in sensitivity or the modifying effect......Page 7
1.2.4 System design and the contribution of errors......Page 8
Simple determination of the global error......Page 9
WORKED EXAMPLE......Page 10
1.3 The general instrumentation system......Page 11
1.4 The overall transfer function......Page 12
1.5 Dynamic response of the sensor......Page 13
Transfer function of a temperature sensor......Page 14
1.6 The measurement system as a series of networks......Page 16
Bibliography......Page 19
Exercises......Page 20
2.1 Introduction......Page 23
2.2 The damped harmonic oscillator......Page 24
2.2.2 The driven oscillator......Page 25
2.2.3 Q factor......Page 28
2.2.4 Driving techniques......Page 31
2.3 Vibrating wire sensors......Page 33
2.5 Longitudinally vibrating plate......Page 34
Flexing vane......Page 35
Flexing pipe......Page 36
2.7 Vibrating cylinder......Page 37
2.9 The double tuning fork structure......Page 39
2.10 Bulk acoustic wave resonator sensors......Page 40
2.11 Thick films......Page 41
Exercises......Page 43
3.1 Introduction......Page 45
3.2 Mechanical microsensors......Page 46
Piezoresistance devices......Page 47
3.2.2 Pressure gauges......Page 48
3.2.3 Accelerometers......Page 50
Capacitive......Page 52
Resonance......Page 53
Thermal......Page 54
Capacitance......Page 55
3.3 Surface acoustic wave sensors (SAWS)......Page 56
Resonator saw sensor......Page 57
Delay line saw sensor......Page 58
3.3.1 Mass and gas/vapour sensors......Page 59
3.3.4 Magnetic sensor......Page 60
3.4 Chemical microsensors......Page 61
3.4.1 Ions in solution......Page 62
3.4.2 Measurement of pH......Page 63
3.4.3 The ISFET......Page 64
3.4.4 FET gas sensors......Page 67
3.4.6 Conclusion......Page 68
3.5.2 Definitions and units......Page 69
Luminous .ux (’)—the lumen (lm)......Page 70
The sensitivity of the eye......Page 71
Brightness B......Page 72
Incandescent objects......Page 73
Discharge lamps......Page 75
LASERs (Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation)......Page 76
3.5.4 Sensor types......Page 78
Photoconductive detectors......Page 79
Photodiodes......Page 80
Photovoltaic mode......Page 82
Photoconductive/photoamperic modes......Page 84
Schottky photodiode......Page 85
Commercially available devices......Page 86
Sensing......Page 87
Charge coupling......Page 88
The optical CCD device......Page 89
Variable depth photosites......Page 91
Thermopiles and thermocouples......Page 92
3.6.2 Thermistors......Page 93
3.6.3 Integrated circuit temperature sensors......Page 95
3.7.1 Radioactivity and historical developments......Page 96
Charged particles......Page 98
3.7.4 Solid-state detectors......Page 99
Photon detection......Page 100
CCDs for X-ray use......Page 101
3.8.1 Hall effect......Page 102
3.8.2 Magnetoresistance......Page 104
3.8.3 Magnetodiode......Page 105
3.8.4 Magnetotransistor......Page 106
Bibliography......Page 107
References......Page 108
Exercises......Page 109
4.1 Introduction......Page 112
4.2 The optical waveguide......Page 113
Gauss’s theorem......Page 114
Maxwell’s equations......Page 116
The laws of reflection and refraction......Page 118
The evanescent wave......Page 122
Absorption......Page 124
Mode leakage......Page 125
Dispersion......Page 126
4.2.3 Manufacturing techniques......Page 127
4.3.1 Displacement sensors......Page 129
4.3.2 Positional encoders......Page 132
4.3.3 Absorption sensors......Page 134
4.3.4 Luminescence sensors......Page 136
Fluorescence sensors......Page 137
4.3.5 Total internal reflection-based sensors......Page 138
Front end sensor......Page 139
Side-coupling sensor......Page 140
4.3.6 Pyrometers......Page 141
Microbending......Page 142
4.4.2 Change in optical-path length......Page 143
Sagnac effect......Page 146
4.4.3 Rotation of polarization......Page 148
Polarization by selective absorption......Page 149
The Faraday magneto-optic effect......Page 151
Kerr effect......Page 152
The photoelastic effect......Page 153
4.5 Distributed sensing......Page 156
Rayleigh scattering......Page 157
Raman scattering......Page 158
4.5.2 Multiplexing......Page 160
OTDR......Page 161
Polarization, OTDR......Page 162
4.6 Referencing techniques......Page 164
Double detection......Page 165
Wavelength modulation......Page 166
The optical bridge......Page 167
References......Page 168
Exercises......Page 169
5.1 Introduction......Page 172
5.2 Discontinuous-time sampling......Page 174
5.3 Discrete sampling of the measurand......Page 175
5.3.1 Digital-to-analogue conversion......Page 176
Glitches......Page 178
2. The dual slope ADC......Page 180
3a. The successive approximation converter......Page 183
3b. The tracking converter......Page 184
Conversion speed and frequency response of ADCs......Page 185
The sample-and-hold device......Page 187
5.4 PC-based data acquisition boards......Page 188
5.5 Smart sensors......Page 191
Microprocessor developments......Page 192
5.6.1 Rule-based expert systems......Page 194
5.6.2 Fuzzy logic......Page 196
Complement......Page 199
Union......Page 200
(2) Rule evaluation......Page 201
Rule 2......Page 202
(4) Defuzzification......Page 203
The biological neurone......Page 205
History of artificial neural networks (ANN)......Page 207
The credit assignment problem......Page 208
Mathematical structure for the back-propagation technique......Page 209
References......Page 215
Exercises......Page 216
6.1 Introduction......Page 219
Periodic sinusoidal data signal......Page 220
Quasi-periodic data signal......Page 221
6.2.2 Random data signals......Page 222
The stationary random process......Page 223
The ergodic random process......Page 224
6.3 Characterization of random data signals......Page 225
6.3.2 Probability density functions......Page 226
The Gaussian or normal distribution......Page 228
Variance and the standard deviation......Page 229
6.3.3 Multi-variable probabilities, covariance and correlation......Page 230
6.3.4 The correlation concept for time-dependent signals......Page 231
Power spectra and the correlation function......Page 232
The practical power spectral density function......Page 235
(b) Shot noise......Page 236
Amplification......Page 237
Filtering......Page 238
Simple time-averaging......Page 239
The multi-channel scaler......Page 240
The phase-sensitive detector......Page 241
The lock-in amplifier......Page 243
Auto-correlation of the sum of two signals......Page 244
Auto-correlation of noise......Page 245
Capacitive coupling......Page 248
Multiple earth connections......Page 249
Geometrical isolation......Page 251
Screening......Page 252
Earthing......Page 253
(c) The differential amplifier......Page 254
Printed circuit board design......Page 255
Filtering......Page 256
Exercises......Page 257
Flow measurement......Page 260
Viscosity......Page 261
The equation of continuity......Page 262
Bernoulli’s theorem......Page 263
7.2.1 Laminar flow......Page 265
7.2.2 Turbulent flow......Page 266
7.2.3 Non-steady flow......Page 267
7.3 The cross-correlation flowmeter......Page 268
7.4 Ultrasound......Page 270
Ultrasonic transducers......Page 271
Time-of-flight flowmeters......Page 272
7.5 The Doppler effect......Page 273
WORKED EXAMPLE......Page 275
7.5.2 Forward and reverse flow......Page 277
(2) Frequency shifting......Page 278
(3) Phase rotation......Page 279
7.5.3 Blood flow measurement......Page 281
Conclusion......Page 283
References......Page 284
Exercises......Page 285