Novel Biological and Biotechnological Applications in Plant Nematode Management

Foreword I
Foreword II
Preface
Contents
Editor and Contributors
	Contributors
Part I: Novel Methods of Nematode Management
	1: Nematode Pests of Agricultural Crops, a Global Overview
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Root-Knot Nematode, Meloidogyne spp.
		1.3 Root Lesion Nematode, Pratylenchus spp.
		1.4 Cyst Nematode, Heterodera spp.
		1.5 Stem and Bulb Nematode, Ditylenchus spp.
		1.6 Potato Cyst Nematode, Globodera spp.
		1.7 Citrus Nematode, Tylenchulus spp.
		1.8 Dagger Nematodes, Xiphinema spp.
		1.9 Borrowing Nematode, Radopholus similis
		1.10 Spiral Nematode, Helicotylenchus spp.
		1.11 Reniform Nematode, Rotylenchulus sp.
		1.12 Foliar Nematodes, Anguina, Aphelenchoides, Bursaphelenchus, Etc.
		1.13 Interaction with Other Organisms and Disease Complex
		1.14 Management of Plant Nematodes
			1.14.1 Cultural Practices
			1.14.2 Physical Control
			1.14.3 Biological Control
			1.14.4 Chemical Control
		1.15 Integrated Nematode Management (INM)
		1.16 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	2: Nematode Management in Crops; Limitations and Challenges to Meet Future Food Demands
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Preventive Approach
		2.3 Physical and Cultural Management
		2.4 Crop Rotation
		2.5 Trap Crop
		2.6 Flooding
		2.7 Solarization
		2.8 Soil Tillage
		2.9 Organic Amendments
		2.10 Resistance
		2.11 Biological Control
		2.12 Predatory Nematodes as Biocontrol Agents
		2.13 Chemical Control
		2.14 Plant Extracts as Phytonematicides
		2.15 Nanotechnology in Nematode Control
		2.16 Integrated Nematode Pest Management
		2.17 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	3: Novel Biological and Biotechnological Methods of Nematode Management, an Effective Strategy to Enhance Crop Productivity
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Beneficial Fungi
		3.3 Beneficial Bacteria
		3.4 Microbial-Induced Systemic Resistance
		3.5 Agricultural Methods and Biofumigation
		3.6 Plant-Derived Products
		3.7 Biotechnology in Nematode Management and Crop Productivity
		3.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	4: Host Resistance, Current Status, and Emerging Advances
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Current Status of HPR Applications in Management of PPN
			4.2.1 Crops and Nematode Genera Involved in HPR
			4.2.2 HPR Across Geographical Regions
			4.2.3 Efficacy of HPR in Nematode Control
		4.3 New Trends in Host Plant Resistance in Plant Nematology
			4.3.1 Nematode Effector Molecules
			4.3.2 SPRYSEC Proteins
			4.3.3 Peptide Mimic Effectors
		4.4 New Advancements in Enhancing Host Resistance
			4.4.1 Use of RNAi
			4.4.2 Cross Kingdom RNAi
			4.4.3 Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS)
			4.4.4 Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS)
			4.4.5 Engineering Plant Susceptibility Genes
		4.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	5: Biocontrol Strategies for Nematode Management, an Overview
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Biocontrol Fungi
			5.2.1 Parasitic Fungi
				5.2.1.1 Pochonia chlamydosporia (=Verticillium chlamydosporium)
					Mechanism of Action
				5.2.1.2 Purpureocillium lilacinum (=Paecilomyces lilacinus)
					Mechanism of Action
			5.2.2 Filamentous Fungi
				5.2.2.1 Trichoderma Species
				5.2.2.2 Mechanisms of Action
		5.3 Biocontrol Bacteria
			5.3.1 Pasteuria penetrans
				5.3.1.1 Mechanisms of Infection
			5.3.2 Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Etc.
		5.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	6: Microbial Consortia: An Approach to Enhance the Effectiveness of Beneficial Soil Microbes
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Soil Microorganisms Types
			6.2.1 Bacteria
			6.2.2 Fungi
			6.2.3 Archaea
		6.3 Type of Microbial Consortia for Use in Soil
			6.3.1 Bacterial Consortia
			6.3.2 Fungal-Bacterial Consortia
			6.3.3 Other Types of Microorganisms
		6.4 The Microbial Consortium´s Interactions
		6.5 Microbial Consortia: Mechanisms and Benefits to Enhance the Effectiveness of Soil Microbes
		6.6 Direct Methods
			6.6.1 Hormone Production in Plants
			6.6.2 Nitrogen Fixation
		6.7 Solubilization of Minerals and Nitrogen Mineralization
		6.8 Microbial Mobilization of Phosphorus in Soil and Other Macro and Micronutrients
		6.9 Indirect Mechanisms
			6.9.1 Mechanism of Abiotic Stress Reduction and Phytopathogen Suppression
			6.9.2 Benefits to Improve the Efficiency of Soil Microbes
			6.9.3 The Biotechnological Applications of Soil Consortia
		6.10 Opportunities in Engineering and Developing Microbial Consortia
		6.11 Conclusions and FuturePerspectives
		References
	7: Novel Biotechnological Interventions in Plant Nematode Management Technologies
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Biotechnological Interventions
			7.2.1 Application of Plant Natural Resistance Genes
			7.2.2 Utilizing Genes Encoding Proteinase Inhibitor
			7.2.3 Use of Nematicidal Proteins
			7.2.4 Use of Plantibodies
			7.2.5 Utilization of Peptide Elicitors and Chemodisruptors
		7.3 Application of RNA Interference
			7.3.1 Utilization of Neuropeptides as a Therapeutic Target
			7.3.2 Utilization of Parasitism Genes
			7.3.3 Utilization of Genes Regulating Development of the Nematode
			7.3.4 Utilizing Genes Regulating the mRNA Metabolism
			7.3.5 Genome-Enabled Development of Novel Chemical Nematicides
			7.3.6 Ectopic Delivery of dsRNA: Non-transgenic RNAi
		7.4 Nematode Resistance Transgenic Crops
			7.4.1 Banana
			7.4.2 Potato
			7.4.3 Rice
			7.4.4 Other Crops
		7.5 Biosafety Issue of Nematode-Resistant Transgenics
		7.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	8: ApplicationsofOmics in the Management of Plant-parasitic Nematodes
		8.1 Introduction to Omics
		8.2 Genomics in Plant Nematode Management
		8.3 Metabolomics in Plant Nematode Management
		8.4 Metagenomics in Plant Nematode Management
		8.5 Proteomics in Plant Nematode Management
		8.6 Transcriptomics in Plant Nematode Management
		8.7 Ionomics and Phenomics in Plant Nematode Management
		8.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	9: Transgenics, Application in Plant Nematode Management
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Role of Nematode Esophageal/Pharyngeal Glands
		9.3 Deployment of Plant Resistance (R) Genes
		9.4 Exploitation of Protease Inhibitors (PIs)
		9.5 Transgenic Expression of Chemodisruptive Peptides
		9.6 Utilization of Nematicidal Proteins
		9.7 Barnase (Enzyme)-Barstar (Inhibitor) System
		9.8 RNAi and Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS) Approach
		9.9 Other Alternative Strategies
		9.10 The Biosafety of Transgenic Nematode Resistance
		9.11 Conclusionand Future Perspectives
		References
	10: Novel Nanomaterials and Nanoformulations for Nematode Management in Agricultural Crops
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Plant Parasitic Nematodes
		10.3 Economic Losses Caused by Nematodes
		10.4 Nanotechnology in Nematode Management
		10.5 NP Decomposition into Metal Ions
		10.6 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
		10.7 Disruption of the Cell Membrane Integrity
		10.8 Signal Transduction Disturbance
		10.9 Chemotaxis and Motility
		10.10 Effect of Nanomaterials on Plant Nematodes
		10.11 Metal-Based Nanoparticles and Their Effect on Plant Parasitic Nematodes
		10.12 Silver Nanoparticles
		10.13 Copper Nanoparticles
		10.14 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
		10.15 Other Nanoparticles
		10.16 Effect of Green-Synthesized Nanoparticles on Plant Nematodes
		10.17 Application of Nanomaterials in Nematode Detection
		10.18 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	11: Nematode Disease Diagnosis: Application of Nano-Sensors
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 What Are Nano-Sensors?
		11.3 How the Nano-Sensors Work?
			11.3.1 The Advantage of Nano-Sensors in Diagnosis and Application of Diseases
		11.4 Types of Nano-Sensors
			11.4.1 Chemical Nano-Sensors
			11.4.2 Physical Nano-Sensors
			11.4.3 Mechanical Nano-Sensors
			11.4.4 Biological Nano-Sensors
		11.5 Role of Nano-Sensors in Nematode Disease Diagnosis
			11.5.1 DNA as a Nanobiosensor for Nematode Disease Diagnosis
				11.5.1.1 Advantages of DNA Using
			11.5.2 pH-Sensitive Ratiometric Nano-Sensors
			11.5.3 Soil PCR
		11.6 Nano-Sensors and Pathogenic Fungi Detection and Diagnosis
			11.6.1 Gold Nanoparticles as Nano-Sensors in Pathogenic Fungi Detection
			11.6.2 Carbon Nanotubes as Nano-Sensors in Pathogenic Fungi Detection
			11.6.3 Quantum Dots Nanoparticles
			11.6.4 Nanopore and Pathogenic Fungi Detection and Diagnosis
			11.6.5 Nanosilicon Oxide
			11.6.6 Copper Oxide Nanoparticles
		11.7 Nano-Sensors and Bacterial Diseases Detection and Diagnosis
			11.7.1 Silica Nanoparticles
			11.7.2 Gold Nanoparticles
		11.8 Nano-Sensors and Viral Detection and Diagnosis
			11.8.1 Nanopore and Viral Detection
			11.8.2 Nanowire and Viral Detection
		11.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
Part II: Nematode Problems and Their Management
	12: Root-Knot Nematodes in Vegetables and Ornamentals and Their Management by Novel Biological and Biotechnological Tools
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Symptoms
		12.3 Epidemiology
		12.4 Biology
		12.5 Host Range
		12.6 Yield Loss
		12.7 Biological and Biotechnological Tools of Management
		12.8 Biological Control
		12.9 Biocontrol Fungi
		12.10 Predacious Fungi
		12.11 Nematode Parasitic Fungi
		12.12 Parasites of Vermiform Nematodes
		12.13 Parasites of Eggs and Adult Females
			12.13.1 Cylindrocarpon Species
			12.13.2 Pochonia chlamydosporia
			12.13.3 Purpureocillium lilacinum (= Paecilomyces lilacinus)
		12.14 Mycorrhizal Fungi
		12.15 Root Nodule-Forming Bacteria
		12.16 Biocontrol Bacteria
		12.17 Nematoxic Metabolite-Producing Bacteria
		12.18 Nematode Parasitizing Bacteria
		12.19 Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria
		12.20 Biotechnological Approaches
		12.21 Transgenic Approaches to Control Root-Knot Nematodes
			12.21.1 RNAi and Its Application in Root-Knot Nematode Management
			12.21.2 Host-Delivered RNAi to Silence Nematode Genes
			12.21.3 Characterization of Target-Specific Genes
		12.22 Other Functional Genomics Approaches for Helping Target Gene Selection for Gene Silencing
			12.22.1 Microarrays with Laser Capture Microdissection
			12.22.2 Artificial microRNAs (amiRNAs)
			12.22.3 Small RNA Sequencing
		12.23 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	13: Root-Knot Nematodes in Cereal and Pulse Crops, and Their Management by Novel Biological and Biotechnological Approaches
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Nematode Infestation in Cereals
		13.3 Infestation of Meloidogyne spp., in Cereal and Pulse Crops
			13.3.1 Distribution
		13.4 Meloidogyne spp. Infesting Cereals
			13.4.1 Meloidogyne graminicola
			13.4.2 Meloidogyne naasi
			13.4.3 Meloidogyne artiellia
			13.4.4 Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica
			13.4.5 Meloidogyne chitwoodi
		13.5 Meloidogyne spp. Infesting Pulse Crops
			13.5.1 Meloidogyne incognita
			13.5.2 Meloidogyne javanica
			13.5.3 Meloidogyne arenaria
			13.5.4 Meloidogyne artiella
		13.6 Symptoms of Meloidogyne Infestation
		13.7 Biology and Life Cycle
		13.8 Novel Approaches for Biocontrol of Root-Knot Nematodes
		13.9 Bacterial Antagonists
		13.10 Fungal Antagonists
		13.11 Biotechnological Approaches for the Management of Meloidogyne spp.
		13.12 RNAi-Based Nematode Resistance Genes/RNAi-Based Technology
		13.13 Proteases Inhibitors Coding Genes
		13.14 Nematicidal Proteins
		13.15 Chemodisruptive
		13.16 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	14: Management of Cyst-Forming Nematodes in Agricultural Crops ThroughNovel Biological and Genetic Engineering Technologies
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Major Cyst Nematode Species Worldwide
			14.2.1 Major Heterodera spp. Worldwide
			14.2.2 Major Globodera spp. Worldwide
		14.3 Soybean Cyst Nematode (Heterodera glycines)
			14.3.1 Novel SCN Biological Management Practices
			14.3.2 Novel SCN Genetic Engineering Technologies
		14.4 Cereal Cyst Nematode (Heterodera avenae)
			14.4.1 Novel CCN Biological Management Practices
			14.4.2 Novel CCN Genetic Engineering Technologies
		14.5 Potato Cyst Nematodes (Globodera pallida and Globoderarostochiensis)
			14.5.1 Novel PCN Biological Management Practices
			14.5.2 Novel PCN Genetic Engineering Technologies
		14.6 Sugar Beet Cyst Nematodes (Heterodera schachtii)
			14.6.1 Novel SBCN Biological Management Practices
			14.6.2 Novel SBCN Genetic Engineering Technologies
		14.7 Corn Cyst Nematodes (Heterodera zeae)
			14.7.1 Novel CCN Biological Management Practices
			14.7.2 Novel CCN Genetic Engineering Technologies
		14.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	15: Stem and Bulb Nematodes in Agricultural Crops and Their Management by Biological and Biotechnological Methods
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 The Stem and Bulb Nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci
			15.2.1 Distribution and Host Range
			15.2.2 Morphological and Molecular Diagnosis of D. dipsaci
			15.2.3 Different Races of D. dipsaci
			15.2.4 Biology and Lifecycle
			15.2.5 Symptoms
		15.3 Traditional Approaches for Management of Stem and Bulb Nematode
			15.3.1 Nematode-Free Planting Material
			15.3.2 Physical Measures
			15.3.3 Crop Rotation
			15.3.4 Biofumigation
			15.3.5 Host Resistance
		15.4 Biological Control of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
			15.4.1 Biocontrol of Stem and Bulb Nematode
		15.5 Biotechnological Approaches for Stem and Bulb Nematode Management
		15.6 Conclusionand Future Perspectives
		References
	16: Leaf and Bud Nematodes in Agricultural Crops and Their Management by Biotechnological Approaches
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
		16.3 Infestation of Food Crops and Its Management
			16.3.1 Rice
				16.3.1.1 White Tip Caused by Aphelenchoides besseyi
			16.3.2 Strawberry
				16.3.2.1 Foliar Nematode Disease of Strawberry Caused by Aphelenchoides sp.
			16.3.3 Mushroom
				16.3.3.1 Mushroom Disease Caused by Aphelenchoides composticola
		16.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	17: Dagger and Stubby Nematodes in Agricultural Crops and Their Bio-Management
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
			17.2.1 Dagger Nematodes
				17.2.1.1 Distribution of Dagger Nematodes
				17.2.1.2 Biology and Life Cycle
				17.2.1.3 Symptoms of Xiphinema spp. Infestation
				17.2.1.4 Identification of Dagger Nematodes
				17.2.1.5 Detection and Density Approximation
				17.2.1.6 Economic Importance of Dagger Nematodes
			17.2.2 Stubby-Root Nematodes
				17.2.2.1 Distribution of Stubby-Root Nematodes
				17.2.2.2 Biology and Life Cycle of Stubby-Root Nematodes
				17.2.2.3 Stubby-Root Nematode Hosts
				17.2.2.4 Symptoms of Stubby-Root Nematode Infestation
				17.2.2.5 Detection and Identification of Stubby-Root Nematodes
				17.2.2.6 Importance of Stubby-Root Nematodes
		17.3 Bio-Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
			17.3.1 Fungi
			17.3.2 Bacteria
			17.3.3 Nematophagous Mites
			17.3.4 Predatory Nematodes
			17.3.5 Agronomic Methods
			17.3.6 Physical Methods
			17.3.7 Bio-Management of Dagger Nematodes
			17.3.8 Bio-Management of Stubby-Root Nematodes
		17.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	18: Burrowing Nematode in Spice and Fruit Crops and Their Management by Novel Biocontrol Strategies
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 The Burrowing Nematode
			18.2.1 Biology and Parasitism
			18.2.2 Symptom, Damage, and Loss
		18.3 Biological Control of the Burrowing Nematode
			18.3.1 Definition of Biological Control
			18.3.2 Biological Control Agents, Their Antagonistic Bioactivity, and Effectivity
				18.3.2.1 Bacteria as Biological Control Agent
					Pseudomonas fluorescens
					Bacillus firmus
					Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki
					Serratia marcescens
					Corynebacterium paurometabolum
					Pasteuria penetrans
				18.3.2.2 Fungi as Biological Control Agent
					The Mycorrhizal Fungus
					Glomus spp.
					Trichoderma spp.
					Rhizophagus irregularis MUCL 41833 AMF
					Nonpathogenic Fusarium oxysporum (F. oxysporum NP)
					Paecilomyces lilacinus
				18.3.2.3 Insect as Biocontrol Agent
					Blattisocius dolichus (Acari: Blattisociidae)
		18.4 Formulation and Commercial Product of the Biopesticide for the Nematode
			18.4.1 Formulation
			18.4.2 Commercial Product of the Biopesticide for the Nematode
		18.5 The Strategic Application of the Biocontrol Agent for Their Effective Bioprotection Activity
			18.5.1 Organic Matter Incorporation Along with Biocontrol Agent Application
			18.5.2 Healthy In Vitro Plants Early or Preventive Inoculation During the Hardening Phase
			18.5.3 Sequential Inoculation and Re-Introduction of Beneficial Microorganisms
			18.5.4 Optimal Concentration/Dose of the Biological Agent Formula
			18.5.5 Consortia Application of Compatible Beneficial Microorganisms with Different Mechanisms of Action that Target Various P...
			18.5.6 As Component of Integrated Pest Management
		18.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	19: Reniform Nematode in Agricultural Crops and Their Management by Novel Biocontrol Technologies
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Major Reniform Nematodes Species Worldwide
		19.3 Novel Biological Management Practices for the Management of Reniform Nematode
			19.3.1 Cotton
			19.3.2 Vegetable Crops
			19.3.3 Fruit Crops
				19.3.3.1 Grapes
				19.3.3.2 Banana
				19.3.3.3 Papaya
				19.3.3.4 Pineapple
			19.3.4 Oilseed Crops
				19.3.4.1 Soybean
				19.3.4.2 Castor
			19.3.5 Pulses Crops
				19.3.5.1 Cowpea
		19.4 Genetic Engineering Technologies for the Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
			19.4.1 Molecular Approach
			19.4.2 Resistance Mechanism
			19.4.3 Reniform Nematode Resistance in Cotton
			19.4.4 RNA Interference (RNAi)
		19.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	20: Citrus Nematode in Fruit Crops and Their Management by Biological and Biotechnological Interventions
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Biological Control of T. semipenetrans in Citrus
			20.2.1 Fungi
				20.2.1.1 Trichoderma spp.
				20.2.1.2 Purpureocillium lilacinum (=Paecilomyces lilacinus)
				20.2.1.3 Pochonia chlamydosporia
				20.2.1.4 Mycorrhizae (Glomus spp.)
				20.2.1.5 Nematophagous Fungi
			20.2.2 Bacteria
				20.2.2.1 Bacillus spp.
				20.2.2.2 Pseudomonas fluorescens
				20.2.2.3 Streptomyces avermitilis
				20.2.2.4 Pasteuria spp.
			20.2.3 Mites
		20.3 Biotechnological Interventions in Citrus Nematode Management
		20.4 Conclusionand Future Perspectives
		References
	21: Spiral and Other Minor Ectoparasitic Nematodes in Agricultural Crops and Their Biomanagement
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Ectoparasitic Nematodes
		21.3 Damages and Threats They Pose
		21.4 General Biocontrol Strategies for Nematode Parasites of Crops
		21.5 Management of Nematode Parasites of Legumes/Pulses
			21.5.1 Soybean (Glycine max L.)
				21.5.1.1 Control
			21.5.2 Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)
				21.5.2.1 Control
			21.5.3 Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan)
				21.5.3.1 Control
			21.5.4 Common Bean/Haricot Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
				21.5.4.1 Control
		21.6 Management of Nematode Parasites of Cereals
			21.6.1 Effects of Nematode Parasites on Cereals
				21.6.1.1 Rice (Oryza spp.)
				21.6.1.2 Wheat (Triticum spp.)
				21.6.1.3 Maize (Zea mays L.)
			21.6.2 General Management Practice of PPNs in Cereal Fields
				21.6.2.1 Cultural Practice
				21.6.2.2 Biological Control
				21.6.2.3 Host Plant Resistance Method
		21.7 Management of Nematode Parasites of Tubers
			21.7.1 General Methods for Controlling PPNs in Potato Fields
		21.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	22: Pine Wood Nematode in Coniferous Forests and Their Management by Novel Biological and Biotechnological Interventions
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Distribution of Pine Wood Nematode
		22.3 Vector Role
		22.4 Primary Transmission
		22.5 Secondary Transmission
		22.6 Symptoms and Damage
			22.6.1 Symptoms
			22.6.2 External Symptoms
				22.6.2.1 Appearance of the Symptoms
				22.6.2.2 Withering and Death of the Tree
		22.7 Internal Pathological Reactions
		22.8 Damage
		22.9 Life Cycle
			22.9.1 Developmental Stages
		22.10 Effect of Temperature on the Distribution and Development
		22.11 Infection Cycle
		22.12 Management
			22.12.1 Quarantine and Monitoring
		22.13 Removal of Infected Wood
		22.14 Vector Insect Control
		22.15 Chemical Control
		22.16 Trapping
		22.17 Biological Control
		22.18 Control Protocol Targeting the Pine Wilt Nematode
		22.19 Silvicultural Measure
		22.20 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	23: Major Nematode Problems in Direct Seeded Rice and Their Management
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Root-Knot Nematode
		23.3 Distribution and Host Range
		23.4 Symptoms of Infestation
		23.5 Life Cycle
		23.6 Yield Losses
		23.7 Management Strategies
			23.7.1 Cultural Method of Management
			23.7.2 Host Resistance
			23.7.3 Biological Method of Management
		23.8 Integrated Method of Management
		23.9 Rice Stem Nematode
		23.10 Distribution and Host Range
		23.11 Symptoms of Infestation
		23.12 Life Cycle
		23.13 Yield Losses
		23.14 Management Strategies
			23.14.1 Cultural Method of Management
			23.14.2 Host Resistance
			23.14.3 Biological and Integrated Method of Management
		23.15 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References