Non-halogenated Flame Retardant Handbook

Cover
Half-Title Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
1 Regulations and Other Developments/ Trends/Initiatives Driving Non-Halogenated Flame Retardant Use
	1.1 Regulatory History of Halogenated vs. Non-Halogenated Flame Retardants
	1.2 Regulations of Fire Safety and Flame Retardant Chemicals
	1.3 Current Regulations
		1.3.1 International – United Nations
		1.3.2 United States (Federal vs. State)
		1.3.3 Canada
		1.3.4 European Union
		1.3.5 Asia
		1.3.6 China
		1.3.7 Japan
		1.3.8 Korea
		1.3.9 Australia
	1.4 Fire Safety and Non-Fire Safety Issues Requiring Non-Halogenated Flame Retardants
	1.5 Regulatory Outlook and Future Market Drivers
	References
2 Phosphorus-Based Flame Retardants
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Main Classes of Phosphorus-Based Flame Retardants
	2.3 Red Phosphorus
	2.4 Ammonium and Amine Phosphates
	2.5 Metal Hypophosphites, Phosphites and Dialkyl Phosphinates
	2.6 Aliphatic Phosphates and Phosphonates
	2.7 Aromatic Phosphates and Phosphonates
	2.8 Aromatic Phosphinates
	2.9 Phosphine Oxides
	2.10 Phosphazenes
	2.11 Environmental Fate and Exposure to Organophosphorus FRs
	2.12 Conclusions and Further Trends
	References
3 Mineral Filler Flame Retardants
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Industrial Importance of Mineral Flame Retardants
		3.2.1 Market Share of Mineral FRs
		3.2.2 Synthetic Mineral FRs within the Industrial Chemical Process Chain
		3.2.3 Natural Mineral FRs
	3.3 Overview of Mineral Filler FRs
		3.3.1 Mineral Filler Flame Retardants by Chemistry
		3.3.2 Classification by Production Process
			3.3.2.1 Crushing and Grinding
			3.3.2.2 Air Classification
			3.3.2.3 Precipitation and Their Synthetic Processes
			3.3.2.4 Surface Treatment
		3.3.3 Physical Characterisation of Mineral FRs
			3.3.3.1 Particle Shape/Morphology/Aspect Ratio
			3.3.3.2 Particle Size Distribution
			3.3.3.3 Sieve Residue
			3.3.3.4 BET Surface Area
			3.3.3.5 Oil Absorption
			3.3.3.6 pH-Value/Specific Conductivity
			3.3.3.7 Bulk Density and Powder Flowability
			3.3.3.8 Thermal Stability/Loss on Ignition/Endothermic Heat
		3.3.4 General Impact of Mineral FRs on Polymer Material Properties
			3.3.4.1 Optical Properties
			3.3.4.2 Mechanical Properties
			3.3.4.3 Water Uptake and Chemical Resistance
			3.3.4.4 Thermal Properties
			3.3.4.5 Electrical Properties
			3.3.4.6 Rheological Properties
	3.4 Working Principle of Hydrated Mineral Flame Retardants
		3.4.1 Filler Loading, Flammability and Flame Propagation
		3.4.2 Smoke Suppression
		3.4.3 Heat Release
	3.5 Thermoplastic and Elastomeric Applications
		3.5.1 Compounding Technology
		3.5.2 Compound Formulation Principals
		3.5.3 Wire & Cable
		3.5.4 Other Construction Products
		3.5.5 Special Applications
		3.5.6 Engineering Plastics for E&E Applications
	3.6 Reactive Resins/Thermoset Applications
		3.6.1 Production Processes for Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composite
			3.6.1.1 Paste Production
			3.6.1.2 Hand Lamination/Hand-Lay-Up
			3.6.1.3 SMC and BMC
			3.6.1.4 Pultrusion
			3.6.1.5 RTM/RIM
		3.6.2 Formulation Principles
		3.6.3 Public Transport Applications of GFRP
		3.6.4 E&E Applications
		3.6.5 Construction and Industrial Applications
	3.7 Conclusion, Trends and Challenges
	References
4 Intumescence-Based Flame Retardant
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Fundamentals of Intumescence
	4.3 Intumescence on the Market
	4.4 Reaction to Fire of Intumescent Materials
	4.5 Resistance to Fire of Intumescent Materials
	4.6 Conclusion and Future Trends
	References
5 Nitrogen-Based Flame Retardants
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Main Types of Nitrogen-Based Flame Retardants
	5.3 Ammonia-Based Flame Retardants
		5.3.1 Ammonium Polyphosphate
		5.3.2 Other Ammonia Salts
	5.4 Melamine-Based Flame Retardants
		5.4.1 Melamine as Flame Retardant
		5.4.2 Melamine Salts
		5.4.3 Melamine Cyanurate
		5.4.4 Melamine Polyphosphate
		5.4.5 Melamine Condensates and Its Salts
	5.5 Nitrogen-Based Radical Generators
	5.6 Phosphazenes, Phospham and Phosphoroxynitride
	5.7 Cyanuric-Acid Based Flame Retardants
	5.8 Summary and Conclusion
	References
6 Silicon-Based Flame Retardants
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Basics of Silicon Chemistry
	6.3 Industrial Applications of Silicones
	6.4 Silicon-Based Materials as Flame Retardant Materials
		6.4.1 Inorganic Silicon-Based Flame Retardants
			6.4.1.1 Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) (Silica)
			6.4.1.2 Wollastonite
			6.4.1.3 Magadiite
			6.4.1.4 Sepiolite
			6.4.1.5 Kaolin
			6.4.1.6 Mica
			6.4.1.7 Talc
			6.4.1.8 Halloysite
			6.4.1.9 Layered Silicate Nanocomposites
			6.4.1.10 Sodium Silicate
			6.4.1.11 Silsesquioxane
		6.4.2 Organic Silicone-Based Flame Retardants
			6.4.2.1 Polyorganosiloxanes
			6.4.2.2 Silanes
		6.4.3 Other Silicone-Based Flame Retardants
		6.4.4 Silicone/Silica Protective Coatings
	6.5 Mode of Actions of Silicone-Based Flame Retardants and Practical Use Considerations
		6.5.1 Silicon Dioxide
		6.5.2 Silicate-Based Minerals
		6.5.3 Silicones
	6.6 Future Trends in Silicon-Based Flame Retardants
	6.7 Summary and Conclusions
	References
7 Boron-Based Flame Retardants in Non-Halogen Based Polymers
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Major Functions of Borates in Flame Retardancy
	7.3 Major Commercial Boron-Based Flame Retardants and Their Applications
	7.4 Properties and Applications of Boron-Base Flame Retardants
		7.4.1 Boric Acid [B2O3·3H2O/B(OH)3], Boric Oxide (B2O3)
		7.4.2 Alkaline Metal Borate
			7.4.2.1 Borax Pentahydrate (Na2O·2B2O3·5H2O), Borax Decahydrate (Na2O·2B2O3·10H2O)
			7.4.2.2 Disodium Octaborate Tetrahydrate (Na2O·4B2O3·4H2O)
		7.4.3 Alkaline-Earth Metal Borate
			7.4.3.1 Calcium Borates (xCaO·yB2O3·zH2O)
			7.4.3.2 Magnesium Borate (xMgO·yB2O3·zH2O)
		7.4.4 Transition Metal Borates
			7.4.4.1.1 Firebrake ZB (2ZnO·3B2O3·3.5H2O) and Firebrake 500 (2ZnO·3B2O3)
			7.4.4.1.2 Miscellaneous Metal Borates
		7.4.6 Phosphorus-Containing Borates
			7.4.6.1 Boron Phosphate (BPO4)
			7.4.6.2 Metal Borophosphate
		7.4.7 Silicon-Containing Borates
			7.4.7.1 Borosilicate Glass and Frits
		7.4.8 Carbon-Containing Boron or Borates
			7.4.8.1 Graphene (Boron-Doped)
			7.4.8.2 Boric Acid Esters [B(OR)3]
			7.4.8.3 Boronic Acid [ArB(OH)2]
			7.4.8.4 Boron Carbide (B4C)
	7.5 Mode of Actions of Boron-Based Flame Retardants
	7.6 Conclusions
	References
8 Non-Halogenated Conformal Flame Retardant Coatings
	List of Acronyms
	8.1 Introduction to Conformal Coatings: The Role of Surface During Combustion
	8.2 Fabrics
		8.2.1 Natural Fabrics
		8.2.2 Synthetic Fabrics and Blends
		8.2.3 Process Equipment and Related Patents
	8.3 Porous Materials
		8.3.1 Open Cell PU Foams
		8.3.2 Other Porous Substrates
		8.3.3 Process Equipment and Related Patents
	8.4 Other Substrates
	8.5 Future Trends and Needs
	References
9 Multicomponent Flame Retardants
	9.1 The Need for Multicomponent Flame Retardants
	9.2 Concepts
	9.3 Combination with Fillers
	9.4 Adjuvants
	9.5 Synergists
	9.6 Combinations of Different Flame Retardants
	9.7 Combinations of Different Flame-Retardant Groups in One Flame Retardant
	9.8 Conclusion
	References
10 Other Non-Halogenated Flame Retardants and Future Fire Protection Concepts & Needs
	10.1 The Periodic Table of Flame Retardants
	10.2 Transition Metal Flame Retardants
		10.2.1 Vapor Phase Transition Metal Flame Retardants
		10.2.2 Condensed Phase Transition Metal Flame Retardants
			10.2.2.1 Metal Oxides
			10.2.2.2 Metal Complexes
	10.3 Sulfur-Based Flame Retardants
	10.4 Carbon-Based Flame Retardants
		10.4.1 Cross-Linking Compounds – Alkynes, Deoxybenzoin, Friedel-Crafts, Nitriles, Anhydrides
			10.4.1.1 Alkynes
			10.4.1.2 Deoxybenzoin
			10.4.1.3 Friedel-Crafts
			10.4.1.4 Nitriles
			10.4.1.5 Anhydrides
		10.4.2 Organic Carbonates
		10.4.3 Graft Copolymerization
		10.4.4 Expandable Graphite
	10.5 Bio-Based Materials
	10.6 Tin-Based Flame Retardants
		10.6.1 Introduction
		10.6.2 Zinc Stannates
		10.6.3 Halogen-Free Applications
			10.6.3.1 Polyolefins
			10.6.3.2 Styrenics
			10.6.3.3 Engineering Plastics
			10.6.3.4 Thermosetting Resins
			10.6.3.5 Elastomers
			10.6.3.6 Paints and Coatings
			10.6.3.7 Textiles
		10.6.4 Novel Tin Additives
			10.6.4.1 Coated Fillers
			10.6.4.2 Tin-Modified Nanoclays
			10.6.4.3 Mechanism of Action
			10.6.4.4 Summary
	10.7 Polymer Nanocomposites
	10.8 Engineering Non-Hal FR Solutions
		10.8.1 Barrier Fabrics
		10.8.2 Coatings
			10.8.2.1 Inorganic Coatings
			10.8.2.2 IR Reflective Coatings
			10.8.2.3 Nanoparticle Coatings
			10.8.2.4 Conformal/Integrated Coatings
	10.9 Future Directions
		10.9.1 Polymeric Flame Retardants and Reactive Flame Retardants
		10.9.2 End of Life Considerations For Flame Retardants
		10.9.3 New and Growing Fire Risk Scenarios
		10.9.4 Experimental Methodology for Flame Retardant Screening
	References
Index
EULA