New World Tarantulas: Taxonomy, Biogeography and Evolutionary Biology of Theraphosidae

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Theraphosidae
	1.1 Introduction
		1.1.1 What Is a Theraphosidae?
	1.2 Morphology
	1.3 Tarantulas: Numbers and Taxonomy
		1.3.1 Key to New World Theraphosidae Subfamilies
	1.4 Biology
		1.4.1 Life Cycles, Lifespan
		1.4.2 Cocoons and Development
	1.5 Venom
	1.6 Origin and Paleontology
	References
Chapter 2: A Molecular Approach to the Phylogeny of Theraphosidae and Their Kin
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Overview of Developments in Molecular Studies of Spiders, Especially Tarantulas
		2.2.1 Clarification of Species Limits
		2.2.2 Broader Phylogenetic Scheme
	2.3 Expansion into Genomic-Scale Sequencing Initiatives
		2.3.1 Mitogenomics
		2.3.2 Nuclear Genomics
	2.4 Targeted Sequencing Approaches
		2.4.1 Transcriptome Sequencing
		2.4.2 Ultra-conserved Elements/Anchored Hybrid Enrichment
	2.5 Toward Resolution of the Tarantula Phylogeny
	2.6 Closing Aspects and Future Perspective
	References
Chapter 3: Ischnocolinae and Schismatothelinae
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Subfamily Schismatothelinae
		3.2.1 Identification Key (All steps in the key require examination of sexual features, such as male palpal bulb and female spermathecae. Therefore, adult specimens are required for proper generic recognition.)
	3.3 Subfamily Ischnocolinae
		3.3.1 Identification Key
	References
Chapter 4: Arboreal Tarantulas and Their Allies: Aviculariinae and Psalmopoeinae
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Aviculariinae
		4.1.2 Psalmopoeinae
	4.2 Taxonomy
		4.2.1 Aviculariinae Simon, 1892
		4.2.2 Psalmopoeinae Samm and Schmidt (2008)
	4.3 Distribution and Natural History
	4.4 Conservation
	4.5 Final Considerations
	References
Chapter 5: Theraphosinae
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Taxonomic History
	5.3 Taxonomy
		5.3.1 Theraphosinae Thorell, 1870
	5.4 Taxonomic Key
	References
Chapter 6: Biogeography of New World Tarantulas
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 Overview of New World Tarantula Biogeography
	6.2 Biogeography of the Infraorder Mygalomorphae
	6.3 Distribution of New World Tarantulas
		6.3.1 Geographical Distribution of Theraphosidae Subfamilies
		6.3.2 Geographical Distribution of Urticating Setae Types
		6.3.3 Elevational and Latitudinal Limits for New World Tarantulas
		6.3.4 Islands
		6.3.5 Caves
		6.3.6 Exotic Species Introductions
	6.4 Historical Events Affecting the Distributional Patterns of New World Theraphosids
		6.4.1 Origin and Diversification of the New World Theraphosid Fauna
	6.5 Published and Ongoing Research on the Biogeography of New World Tarantulas
		6.5.1 Divergence Dating
		6.5.2 South America
		6.5.3 Mexico
		6.5.4 United States
	6.6 Final Comments
	References
Chapter 7: Tarantulas and Their Habitats
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 USA: Aphonopelma
	7.3 México: Brachypelma and Tliltocatl
		7.3.1 “Red-knee” Brachypelma
		7.3.2 “Red-Rump” Tliltocatl
	7.4 Exit Light, Enter Night: Cave Dwellers of Mexico, and Beyond
	7.5 Brazil: Mata Atlântica
	7.6 High Up on the Mountain
	7.7 Costa Rica and Ecuador: Local Assemblages Compared
		7.7.1 Methods
		7.7.2 Results
		7.7.3 Discussion
	7.8 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 8: Predation and Other Interactions
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Predation
	8.3 Predators and Parasites
		8.3.1 Predators
		8.3.2 Parasites and Parasitoids
	8.4 Associations and Other Interactions
		8.4.1 Frogs and Tarantulas
		8.4.2 Bromeliads and Tarantulas
		8.4.3 Interactions with Humans
	8.5 Conclusion and Perspectives
	References
Chapter 9: Enemies and Defences: Urticating Setae of Theraphosidae
	9.1 Urticating Setae
		9.1.1 Morphology and Typology of Urticating Setae
		9.1.2 Active Defence of Theraphosids Using Urticating Setae
		9.1.3 Passive Defence of Theraphosids Using Urticating Setae
		9.1.4 Development of Urticating Setae During Ontogeny
		9.1.5 Evolution of Urticating Setae
	References
Chapter 10: Phsiological Ecology of Tarantulas: Thermoregulation, Metabolism, and Performance Traits
	10.1 Thermoregulation
		10.1.1 Measuring Thermoregulation
		10.1.2 Activity Patterns and Body Temperature
		10.1.3 Preferred Body Temperatures (Tpref)
		10.1.4 Coldhardiness
		10.1.5 Retreat Site Selection
	10.2 Metabolism
	10.3 Resting Metabolic Rates
	10.4 Specific Dynamic Action (SDA)
	10.5 Evaporative Water Loss
	10.6 Performance Traits
		10.6.1 Metabolic Rates During Locomotion
		10.6.2 Minimum Cost of Transport (Cmin)
	10.7 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 11: Cuticular Structures of New World Tarantulas: Ultramorphology of Setae and Other Features
	11.1 Introduction
		11.1.1 Stridulating Setae: Coxae, Trochanters, Femora (Figs. 11.2, 11.3, and 11.4)
		11.1.2 Adhesive Setae: Scopula and Claw Tufts (Fig. 11.5a, c–e, g, h)
		11.1.3 Frictional Setae (Fig. 11.5a, c–f)
		11.1.4 Chemosensors
		11.1.5 Trichobothria: Clavate, Thickened, Filiform
		11.1.6 Scales (Fig. 11.6c, g–i)
		11.1.7 Spigots
		11.1.8 Cuspules
		11.1.9 Epiandrous Spigots
	References
Chapter 12: Adhesive Features of the Theraphosid Tarantulas
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Smooth Adhesion Pads
		12.1.2 Setae Adhesion Pads
	12.2 Animal Groups with Adhesive Pads
	12.3 Adhesion Structures in Tarantulas
		12.3.1 Function of Scopula and Claw Tuft
		12.3.2 Mechanism of Adhesion of the Scopula and Claw Tuft
		12.3.3 Silk as an Adhesive Fluid?
		12.3.4 Climbing
	12.4 Ecological and Evolutionary Aspects of the Adhesion Structures in Tarantulas
	References
Chapter 13: Biomechanics of Locomotion in Tarantulas
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Gait Analysis
	13.3 Stride Length and Frequency
	13.4 Gait Patterns
	13.5 Cost of Locomotion
	13.6 Size and Speed
	13.7 Mechanical Work of Locomotion
	13.8 Efficiency and Maximum Power
	13.9 Hydraulic Joint Movements
	13.10 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 14: Communication and Reproductive Biology of Tarantulas
	14.1 Communication in Tarantulas: From Sounds to Smells
	14.2 Prepared for Sex: Sperm Induction
	14.3 Send Me a Sign: Male Courtship Behavior and Female Sexual Responses
	14.4 Mating Behavior and Sperm Transfer
	14.5 Sexual Dimorphism and Mating Systems
	14.6 Phenology, Eggsac, Progeny, and Dispersal
	14.7 Final Considerations
	References
Chapter 15: Tarantulas in Captivity: Raising and Breeding
	15.1 Natural History
		15.1.1 Common Names and History
		15.1.2 Natural History
	15.2 Keeping and Breeding Tarantulas in Captivity
		15.2.1 The Terrarium
		15.2.2 Substrates
		15.2.3 Hides
		15.2.4 Light
		15.2.5 Food
		15.2.6 Heating and Temperature
		15.2.7 Water and Humidity
		15.2.8 Cleaning
		15.2.9 Handling and Transport
		15.2.10 Breeding
	15.3 Common Ailments
		15.3.1 Dehydration
		15.3.2 Tissue Damage
		15.3.3 Parasites
	15.4 Tarantulas’ Popularity as Pets and Their Husbandry
		15.4.1 Popular Pet Species
		15.4.2 Acanthoscurria geniculata (C. L. Koch, 1841)
		15.4.3 Aphonopelma seemanni (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897)
		15.4.4 Avicularia avicularia (Linnaeus, 1758)
		15.4.5 Brachypelma auratum Schmidt, 1992
		15.4.6 Brachypelma hamorii Tesmoingt, Cléton & Verdez, 1997
		15.4.7 Brachypelma smithi (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897)
		15.4.8 Caribena versicolor (Walckenaer, 1837)
		15.4.9 Psalmopoeus irminia Saager, 1994
		15.4.10 Pseudoclamoris gigas (Caporiacco, 1954)
		15.4.11 Theraphosa stirmi Rudloff & Weinmann, 2010
		15.4.12 Xenesthis immanis (Ausserer, 1875)
	15.5 Traffic, Endangered Species and Responsible Breeding Facilities
	References
Chapter 16: Situation and Conservation of Tarantulas in the Americas
	16.1 Social and Ecological Importance of Tarantulas
		16.1.1 Ecological Significance
		16.1.2 Tarantulas as Hobby and Other Usages
		16.1.3 Tarantula’s Utilization: Food Resources, Medical Applications, and Other Applications
		16.1.4 Economic Significance
	16.2 Main Threats
		16.2.1 Habitat Loss
		16.2.2 Impact of Illegal Trade
		16.2.3 Natural Disasters
	16.3 Actions for Tarantula Conservation
		16.3.1 Need of Studies With Wild Populations
		16.3.2 Accurate Identifications
		16.3.3 Education and Sustainable Use
	16.4 Public Policies for Management, Protection, and Conservation
	References
Chapter 17: Tarantulas, Gods and Arachnologists: An Outline of the History of the Study of New World Theraphosid Spiders
	17.1 History of the Study of New World Theraphosid Spiders
	References
Index