Neurophysiological Basis of Motor Control

Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Introduction
	Chapter 1. History, Evolution, and Motor Control
		1.1 Brief History of Movement Studies
		1.2 Evolution of Movements and Nikolai Bernstein’s Theory
		1.3 Motor Control and Laws of Nature
Part I: Excitable Cells and Their Communication
	Chapter 2. Membranes, Particles, and Equilibrium Potentials
		2.1 The Biological Membrane
		2.2 Movement in a Solution
		2.3 Concentration of Water: Osmosis
		2.4 Movement of Ions: The Nernst Equation
	Chapter 3. Action Potential
		3.1 Creation of a Membrane Potential
		3.2 Basic Features of the Action Potential
		3.3 Mechanisms of Generating an Action Potential
	Chapter 4. Information Conduction and Transmission
		4.1 Conduction of an Action Potential
		4.2 Myelinated Fibers
		4.3 Structure of a Neuron
		4.4 Information Coding in the Nervous System
		4.5 Synaptic Transmission
		4.6 Neurotransmitters
		4.7 Temporal and Spatial Summation
	Chapter 5. Skeletal Muscle
		5.1 Skeletal Muscle Structure
		5.2 Myofilaments
		5.3 Neuromuscular Synapse
		5.4 Mechanisms of Contraction
		5.5 Types of Muscle Contractions
		5.6 Elements of Mechanics
		5.7 Force–Length and Force–Velocity Relations
		5.8 External Regimes of Muscle Contraction
	Chapter 6. Peripheral Receptors
		6.1 General Classification and Properties of Receptors
		6.2 Muscle Spindles
		6.3 The Gamma-System
		6.4 Golgi Tendon Organs
		6.5 Other Muscle Receptors
		6.6 Articular Receptors
		6.7 Cutaneous Receptors
		6.8 Signals From Peripheral Receptors
	Chapter 7. Motor Units and Electromyography
		7.1 The Motor Unit
		7.2 Fast and Slow Motor Units
		7.3 The Henneman Principle
		7.4 Functional Roles of Different Motor Units
		7.5 Electromyography
		7.6 Processing Electromyographic Signals
	Problems for Part I
Part II: Neuroanatomical Foundations of Motor Control
	Chapter 8. Cerebral Cortex
		8.1 Structure of the Cerebral Cortex
		8.2 Cells in the Cerebral Cortex
		8.3 Premotor Cortex and Supplementary Motor Areas
		8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
		8.5 Efferent Output From the Cortical Motor Areas
		8.6 Afferent Input Into the Cortical Motor Areas
		8.7 Hemispheric Lateralization in the Cortical Motor Areas
		8.8 Preparation for a Voluntary Movement
		8.9 Neuronal Population Vectors
		8.10 Encoding Movement Parameters in the M1
		8.11 Brain–Machine Interfaces
	Chapter 9. Basal Ganglia
		9.1 Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia
		9.2 Inputs and Outputs of the Basal Ganglia
		9.3 Direct and Indirect Pathways Within the Basal Ganglia
		9.4 Dopamine Modulation of Basal Ganglia Circuits
		9.5 Motor Circuits Involving the Basal Ganglia
		9.6 Activity of the Basal Ganglia During Movements
		9.7 Movement Disorders Associated With the Basal Ganglia
		9.8 Other Functions of the Basal Ganglia
	Chapter 10. Cerebellum
		10.1 Overall Structure of the Cerebellum
		10.2 Inputs and Outputs of the Cerebellum
		10.3 Pathways Within the Cerebellum
		10.4 Distinct Cerebellar Regions Control Discrete Motor Functions
		10.5 Cerebellar Control of Movement
		10.6 Consequences of Cerebellar Lesions on Movements
		10.7 Cerebellar Contribution to Motor Learning
		10.8 Cerebellar Interactions With the Basal Ganglia and Cortex
	Chapter 11. Brainstem and Extrapyramidal Tracts
		11.1 Brainstem Anatomy
		11.2 Reticular Formation
		11.3 Superior Colliculus
		11.4 Red Nucleus
		11.5 Vestibular Nuclei
		11.6 Cranial Nerves
		11.7 Descending Tracts
	Problems for Part II
Part III: Sensory Basis of Motor Control
	Chapter 12. Central Processing of Somatosensory Information
		12.1 First-Order Neurons
		12.2 Second-Order Neurons
		12.3 Third-Order Neurons
		12.4 Proprioceptive System
		12.5 Primary and Secondary Somatosensory Cortex
		12.6 Integration of Somatosensory Input With Other Sensory Modalities
		12.7 Injuries to Somatosensory Pathways
	Chapter 13. Vestibular and Auditory Systems
		13.1 Transduction in the Vestibular System
		13.2 Vestibular Afferents Respond to Head Motion
		13.3 Central Projections From the Otolith Organs and Semicircular Canals
		13.4 Central Pathways That Stabilize Gaze, Posture, and Head Movements
		13.5 Peripheral Auditory System
		13.6 Central Auditory Projections From the Cochlea
		13.7 Auditory Integration
		13.8 Auditory Thalamus and Cortex
		13.9 Auditory Cortex and Limb Motor Control
	Chapter 14. Visual System
		14.1 Structure of the Eye
		14.2 Structure of the Retina
		14.3 Rods and Cones
		14.4 Optic Nerve, Tracts, and Radiations
		14.5 Striate Cortex
		14.6 Retinotopic Organization of V1
		14.7 Extrastriate Cortex
		14.8 Neurons of the Two Visual Streams
		14.9 Visual Deficits Due to Area-Specific Visual System Damage
		14.10 Ocular Movements
	Problems for Part III
Part IV: Reflexes and Reflex-Like Movements
	Chapter 15. Reflexes
		15.1 Definition of a Reflex
		15.2 Reflex Arc, Gain, and Latency
		15.3 Reflex Classifications
		15.4 Conditioned Reflexes
	Chapter 16. Excitation and Inhibition Within the Spinal Cord
		16.1 The Spinal Cord
		16.2 Excitation Within the Central Nervous System
		16.3 Postsynaptic Inhibition
		16.4 Recurrent Inhibition and Renshaw Cells
		16.5 Reciprocal Inhibition
		16.6 Presynaptic Inhibition
		16.7 Persistent Inward Currents
	Chapter 17. Monosynaptic Reflexes
		17.1 H-Reflex and M-Response
		17.2 Tendon Tap Reflex (T-Reflex)
		17.3 Effects of Voluntary Muscle Activation on Monosynaptic Reflexes
		17.4 F-Wave
	Chapter 18. Oligosynaptic and Polysynaptic Reflexes
		18.1 Oligosynaptic Reflexes
		18.2 Polysynaptic Reflexes
		18.3 Flexor Reflex
		18.4 Tonic Stretch Reflex
		18.5 Tonic Vibration Reflex
		18.6 Interaction Among Reflex Pathways
		18.7 Interjoint and Interlimb Reflexes
	Chapter 19. Long-Loop Reflexes and Reflex-Like Reactions
		19.1 Preprogrammed Reactions
		19.2 Preprogrammed Reactions Versus Stretch Reflexes
		19.3 Afferent Sources of Preprogrammed Reactions
		19.4 Preprogrammed Reactions During Movement Perturbations
		19.5 Basic Features of Preprogrammed Reactions
		19.6 Preprogrammed Corrections of Vertical Posture
		19.7 Corrective Stumbling Reactions
	Problems for Part IV
Part V: Control and Coordination of Goal-Oriented Movements
	Chapter 20. Voluntary Control of a Single Muscle
		20.1 What Is Voluntary Movement?
		20.2 Feedforward and Feedback Control
		20.3 Servo Control
		20.4 Servo Hypothesis
		20.5 α-γ Coactivation
		20.6 Voluntary Activation of Muscles
		20.7 Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis
	Chapter 21. General Issues of Motor Control
		21.1 Force Control
		21.2 Engrams and the Generalized Motor Program
		21.3 Internal Models
		21.4 Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis: Main Ideas
		21.5 Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis: Subtle Details
		21.6 Dynamic Systems Approach
	Chapter 22. Motor Synergies
		22.1 The Problem of Motor Redundancy
		22.2 Optimization Approaches
		22.3 Bernstein’s Level of Synergies
		22.4 Uniting Muscles Into Groups
		22.5 Principle of Abundance
		22.6 Ensuring Stability of Movements
		22.7 Uncontrolled Manifold Hypothesis
	Chapter 23. Patterns of Single-Joint Movements
		23.1 Isotonic Movements and Isometric Contractions
		23.2 Task Parameters and Performance Variables
		23.3 Kinematic Patterns During Single-Joint Isotonic Movements
		23.4 EMG Patterns During Single-Joint Isotonic Movements
		23.5 EMG Patterns During Single-Joint Isometric Contractions
		23.6 Dual-Strategy Hypothesis
		23.7 Single-Joint Movements Within the Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis
	Chapter 24. Multijoint Movement
		24.1 Two Issues With Controlling Natural Reaching Movements
		24.2 Interjoint Reflexes
		24.3 Multijoint Coordination by the Spinal Cord
		24.4 Supraspinal Mechanisms
		24.5 Neural Control Variables for Multijoint Movements
		24.6 Equilibrium-Trajectory Hypothesis
		24.7 Hierarchical Control With Spatial Referent Coordinates
		24.8 Multijoint Synergies
	Chapter 25. Postural Control
		25.1 Vertical Posture
		25.2 Postural Sway
		25.3 Role of the Vestibular System
		25.4 Role of Vision
		25.5 Role of Proprioception
		25.6 Anticipatory Postural Adjustments
		25.7 Corrective Postural Reactions
		25.8 Postural Synergies
	Chapter 26. Locomotion
		26.1 Two Approaches to Locomotion
		26.2 Central Pattern Generator
		26.3 Locomotor Centers
		26.4 Spinal Locomotion
		26.5 Spinal Control of Locomotion in Humans
		26.6 Gait Patterns
		26.7 Dynamic Pattern Generation
		26.8 Step Initiation
		26.9 Corrective Stumbling Reaction
	Chapter 27. Prehension
		27.1 Hand Joints and Muscles
		27.2 Cortical Representations of the Hand
		27.3 Indices of Finger Interaction
		27.4 Multifinger Synergies in Pressing Tasks
		27.5 Grasping
		27.6 Prehension Synergies and Principle of Superposition
	Problems for Part V
Part VI: Sensorimotor Integration for Perception and Action
	Chapter 28. Kinesthetic Perception
		28.1 Sensation and Perception
		28.2 Weber-Fechner Law
		28.3 Ambiguity of Sensory Information
		28.4 Afferent and Efferent Components of Perception
		28.5 Vibration-Induced Kinesthetic Illusions
		28.6 Distorted Efferent Copy and Preconceptions
		28.7 Sense of Effort
		28.8 Stability of Percepts
		28.9 Perception–Action Coupling
	Chapter 29. Multisensory Integration
		29.1 Spatial Multisensory Integration for Limb Motor Control
		29.2 Temporal Multisensory Integration for Limb Motor Control
		29.3 Coordinate Frames for Limb Motor Control
		29.4 Postural Balance and Motion Perception
		29.5 Neural Correlates of Multisensory Integration
	Chapter 30. Visual Perception and Action
		30.1 Two Visual Streams
		30.2 Magnocellular and Parvocellular Ganglion Cells and Streams
		30.3 Motion Processing in the Cortex
		30.4 Color, Object, and Face Recognition in the Ventral Stream
		30.5 Feedforward and Feedback Control for Reach-to-Grasp Movements
		30.6 Neural Structures Involved in Oculomotor Control
		30.7 Roles of Two Visual Streams in Eye–Hand Coordination
		30.8 Eye and Hand Coordination for Movements Starting From Rest
		30.9 Eye and Hand Coordination During Movement
		30.10 Eye and Hand Coordination While Intercepting Moving Targets
	Problems for Part VI
Part VII: Emerging, Evolving, and Adapting Movements
	Chapter 31. Fatigue
		31.1 Fatigue and Its Contributors
		31.2 Muscular Mechanisms of Fatigue
		31.3 Spinal Mechanisms of Fatigue
		31.4 Supraspinal Mechanisms of Fatigue
		31.5 Adaptive Changes During Fatigue
		31.6 Abnormal Fatigue
	Chapter 32. Effects of Aging
		32.1 General Features of Movements in Elderly Persons
		32.2 Changes in Muscles and Motor Units
		32.3 Muscle Reflexes in Elderly Persons
		32.4 Changes in Sensory Function
		32.5 Muscle Activation Patterns During Fast Movements
		32.6 Changes in Posture and Gait
		32.7 Hand Function in Elderly Persons
		32.8 Changes in Motor Synergies
		32.9 Adaptive Changes in Motor Patterns
		32.10 Effects of Training
	Chapter 33. Typical and Atypical Development
		33.1 Humans at Birth
		33.2 Motor Milestones During Typical Development
		33.3 Exploration and Emergent Motor Patterns
		33.4 Development of Motor Synergies
		33.5 Down Syndrome
		33.6 Effects of Practice in Persons with Down Syndrome
		33.7 Autism
		33.8 Developmental Coordination Disorder
	Chapter 34. Motor Learning
		34.1 Adaptation, Learning, and Memory
		34.2 Muscle Memory
		34.3 Habituation of Reflexes
		34.4 Conditioned Reflexes
		34.5 Operant Conditioning and Learning Spinal Reflexes
		34.6 Short-Term and Long-Term Memory
		34.7 Adaptation to Unusual Force Fields
		34.8 Motor Skills
		34.9 Learning Motor Synergies
		34.10 Stages in Motor Learning
		34.11 Effects of Practice on Cortical Representations
	Problems for Part VII
Part VIII: Motor Disorders
	Chapter 35. Peripheral Muscular and Neurological Disorders
		35.1 Myopathies and Neuropathies
		35.2 Muscular Dystrophies
		35.3 Continuous Muscle Fiber Activity Syndromes
		35.4 Myasthenia Gravis
		35.5 Mononeuropathies
		35.6 Multiple Mononeuropathies
		35.7 Polyneuropathies
		35.8 Radiculopathies
	Chapter 36. Spinal Cord Injury and Spasticity
		36.1 Consequences of Spinal Cord Injury
		36.2 Signs and Symptoms of Spasticity
		36.3 Possible Mechanisms of Spasticity
		36.4 Defining Muscle Tone
		36.5 Treatment of Spasticity
	Chapter 37. Disorders Involving the Basal Ganglia
		37.1 Clinical Features of Parkinson’s Disease
		37.2 Voluntary Movements in Parkinson’s Disease
		37.3 Vertical Posture and Locomotion in Parkinson’s Disease
		37.4 Motor Synergies in Parkinson’s Disease
		37.5 Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease
		37.6 Huntington’s Chorea
		37.7 Hemiballismus
		37.8 Dystonia
		37.9 Tardive Dyskinesia
	Chapter 38. Cerebellar Disorders
		38.1 Consequences of Cerebellar Injuries in Animals
		38.2 Consequences of Cerebellar Disorders in Humans
		38.3 Abnormalities of Stance and Gait
		38.4 Voluntary Movements in Cerebellar Disorders
		38.5 Cerebellar Tremor
		38.6 Ataxias
		38.7 Changes in Motor Synergies
		38.8 Cerebellar Cognitive Affective Syndrome
	Chapter 39. Cortical Disorders
		39.1 Consequences of Lesions of Different Cortical Lobes
		39.2 Stroke
		39.3 Myoclonus
		39.4 Tics
		39.5 Tourette Syndrome
		39.6 Williams Syndrome
	Chapter 40. Systemic Disorders
		40.1 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
		40.2 Multiple Sclerosis
		40.3 Multisystem Atrophy
		40.4 Essential Tremor
		40.5 Cerebral Palsy
		40.6 Wilson’s Disease
	Chapter 41. Motor Rehabilitation
		41.1 Do “Normal Movements” Exist?
		41.2 Changes in CNS Priorities
		41.3 Neural Plasticity
		41.4 Adaptive Changes in Motor Patterns
		41.5 Consequences of Amputation
		41.6 Functional Electrical Stimulation
		41.7 Constraint-Induced and Discomfort-Induced Therapies
		41.8 Brain–Computer Interface
		41.9 Practical Considerations
	Problems for Part VIII
Glossary
References
Index
About the Authors