Neuromuscular Fundamentals: How Our Musculature is Controlled

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Brief Contents
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Convention for Symbols
Author Biography
Chapter 1 Introduction: Background Material
	Objective and Overview
	1.1 Living Cells
		1.1.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum
		1.1.2 Mitochondria
		1.1.3 Cytoskeleton
		1.1.4 Endocytosis and Exocytosis
	1.2 Neurons and Glia
		1.2.1 Neurons
		1.2.2 Axonal Transport
		1.2.3 Glial Cells
	1.3 Organization of the Nervous System
	1.4 Diffusion, Fluxes, and Potentials
		1.4.1 Chemical Potential
		1.4.2 Electrochemical Potential
		1.4.3 Permeability
	1.5 Ionic Equilibriums
		1.5.1 Osmotic Equilibrium
		1.5.2 Basic Ionic Equilibrium
		1.5.3 Equilibrium Voltage
		1.5.4 Gibbs–Donnan Equilibrium
	1.6 Chemical Kinetics
		1.6.1 Reaction Rates
		1.6.2 Order of Reactions
		1.6.3 Reversible Reactions
		1.6.4 Kinetic Models of Ion Channel Gating
	Summary of Main Concepts
Chapter 2 The Cell Membrane in the Steady State
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
	2.1 Structure of the Cell Membrane
		2.1.1 Aqueous Pores
	2.2 Electrical Properties of the Cell Membrane
		2.2.1 Ionic Concentrations and Permeabilities
	2.3 Ion Transporters
		2.3.1 The Sodium-Potassium Pump
		2.3.2 Uniporters and Cotransporters
	2.4 Origin of the Resting Membrane Voltage
		2.4.1 Membrane Voltage in the Steady State
	2.5 Membrane Equivalent Circuit
		2.5.1 Membrane Conductances
		2.5.2 Generation of Electric Signals
	2.6 Membrane Rectification
	2.7 Membrane Reactance
		2.7.1 Inductive Reactance
		2.7.2 Capacitive Reactance
	2.8 Semiconductor Analogy
	Summary of Main Concepts
Chapter 3 Generation of the Action Potential
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
	3.1 Generation of the Action Potential
	3.2 The Hodgkin–Huxley Model
		3.2.1 Voltage Clamp Technique and Basic Results
		3.2.2 Mathematical Description
			3.2.2.1 Potassium Conductance
			3.2.2.2 Sodium Conductance
		3.2.3 Kinetic Representation of the Hodgkin–Huxley Model
		3.2.4 Na+ and K+ Channels
	3.3 Properties of the Action Potential under Space Clamp
		3.3.1 Active Response
		3.3.2 Threshold
		3.3.3 Strength-Duration Relationship
		3.3.4 Effect of Temperature
		3.3.5 Refractoriness
	Summary of Main Concepts
Chapter 4 Propagation of the Action Potential
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
		4.1.1 Cable Model
		4.1.2 Solution of the Cable Equation
			4.1.2.1 Response to a Current Step
			4.1.2.2 Response to a Current Impulse
			4.1.2.3 Wave Propagation
		4.2.1 Quantitative Considerations
	4.3 Properties of the Propagating Action Potential
		4.3.1 Threshold
		4.3.2 Effect of Temperature
		4.3.3 Active vs. Passive Propagation
	Summary of Main Concepts
Chapter 5 The Neuromuscular Junction
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
	5.1 Structure
	5.2 Sequence of Events
	5.3 Statistics of Neurotransmitter Release
		5.3.1 Spontaneous Release
		5.3.2 Evoked Release
	5.4 The ACh Receptor
		5.4.1 Structure
		5.4.2 Channel Kinetics
		5.4.3 Channel Desensitization
	5.5 Generation of the Muscle Action Potential
		5.5.1 The Endplate Current
		5.5.2 The Endplate Voltage
	5.6 Interference with Normal Operation
		5.6.1 ACh Agonists and Antagonists
	Summary of Main Concepts
	Appendix 5A Chapman–Kolmogorov Equation
Chapter 6 Synapses
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
	6.1 Overview of Synapses
		6.1.1 General
		6.1.2 Neurotransmitters
			6.1.2.1 Types of Neurotransmitters
			6.1.2.2 Neurotransmitter Cycle
	6.2 Fast Chemical Synapses
		6.2.1 General
		6.2.2 Fast Inhibitory Synapses
		6.2.3 Fast Excitatory Synapses
	6.3 Second-Messenger Systems
		6.3.1 General Description
		6.3.2 Neuromodulators
	6.4 Presynaptic Inhibition and Facilitation
	6.5 Synaptic Plasticity
		6.5.1 Short-Term Synaptic Plasticity
		6.5.2 Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity
			6.5.2.1 Long-Term Potentiation
			6.5.2.2 Long-Term Depression
		6.5.3 Structural Changes in Dendritic Spines
		6.5.4 Hebbian Synapses
	6.6 Electrical Synapses
	Summary of Main Concepts
Chapter 7 Neurons
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
	7.1 Overview of Neurons
	7.2 Triggering of Neuronal Spikes
		7.2.1 Basic Synaptic Mechanisms
		7.2.2 Synaptic Connections between Neurons
		7.2.3 Nonsynaptic Mechanisms
		7.2.4 Electrically Mediated Mechanisms
			7.2.4.1 Gap Junctions
			7.2.4.2 Field Potentials
	7.3 Neuronal Ion Channels and Currents
		7.3.1 Sodium Channels
		7.3.2 Calcium Channels
		7.3.3 Potassium Channels
		7.3.4 Chloride Channels
		7.3.5 Effects on Afterhyperpolarization and Afterdepolarization
	7.4 Dendritic Responses
		7.4.1 Synaptic Integration
		7.4.2 Modulation of Synaptic Voltages
		7.4.3 Backpropagation
		7.4.4 Dendritic Spikes
		7.4.5 Bistability in Dendrites
	Summary of Main Concepts
Chapter 8 Neuronal Firing Patterns and Models
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
	8.1 Neuronal Firing Patterns and Their Modulation
		8.1.1 Neuronal Computation
		8.1.2 Neuronal Excitability
		8.1.3 Resonators and Integrators
		8.1.4 Neuronal Firing Patterns
			8.1.4.1 Regular Spiking Neurons
			8.1.4.2 Intrinsically Bursting Neurons
			8.1.4.3 Fast Rhythmic Bursting Neurons
			8.1.4.4 Fast Spiking Interneurons
			8.1.4.5 Low Threshold Spiking Interneurons
			8.1.4.6 Late Spiking Interneurons
		8.1.5 Rhythmic and Synchronized Firing
	8.2 Neuronal Models
		8.2.1 Dynamical Neuronal Models
			8.2.1.1 Integrate-and-Fire Model
			8.2.1.2 Resonate-and-Fire Model
			8.2.1.3 Fast-Slow Reduced HH Model
			8.2.1.4 Fitzhugh–Nagumo Model
			8.2.1.5 Quadratic Model
			8.2.1.6 Morris–Lecar Model
		8.2.2 Biophysical Neuronal Models
			8.2.2.1 Morphoelectrotonic Transformations
			8.2.2.2 Compartmental Models
	8.3 Models of Neuronal Networks
		8.3.1 Compartmental Models
		8.3.2 Firing Rate Models
	Summary of Main Concepts
Chapter 9 Skeletal Muscle
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
	9.1 Structure of Skeletal Muscle
		9.1.1 Gross Structure
		9.1.2 Microstructure
	9.2 Contraction of Skeletal Muscle
		9.2.1 Excitation-Contraction Coupling
		9.2.2 ATP Synthesis
		9.2.3 Heat Production
		9.2.4 Muscle Fatigue
	9.3 Organization of Muscle Fibers
		9.3.1 Motor Unit
		9.3.2 Muscle Fiber Types
		9.3.3 Motoneuron-Muscle Fiber Interactions
		9.3.4 Muscle Action
		9.3.5 Muscle Architecture
	9.4 Muscle Receptors
		9.4.1 Golgi Tendon Organ
		9.4.2 Muscle Spindle
			9.4.2.1 Structure and General Properties
			9.4.2.2 Sensory Responses
			9.4.2.3 Fusimotor Effects
	Summary of Main Concepts
Chapter 10 Functional Properties of Muscle
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
	10.1 Types of Contraction
	10.2 Twitch Contractions
		10.2.1 Isometric Twitch
		10.2.2 Isotonic Twitch
		10.2.3 Summation of Contractions
		10.2.4 Gradation of Muscular Contraction
	10.3 Mechanics of Contraction
		10.3.1 Length-Tension Relation
		10.3.2 Force-Velocity Relation
		10.3.3 Kinetics of Contraction
		10.3.4 Mechanical Model
	10.4 Pennate vs. Parallel Muscles
	10.5 Cardiac Muscle
		10.5.1 Cardiac Cells
		10.5.2 Starling’s Law
		10.5.3 Cardiac Action Potential
			10.5.3.1 Non-Pacemaker Cardiocytes
			10.5.3.2 Pacemaker Cardiocytes
	10.6 Smooth Muscle
	Summary of Main Concepts
Chapter 11 Spinal Cord and Reflexes
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
	11.1 Gross Features
		11.1.1 Vertebral Column
		11.1.2 Peripheral Nerves
		11.1.3 Neural Organization
	11.2 Somatomotor Neurons
		11.2.1 Motoneurons
			11.2.1.1 General
			11.2.1.2 Persistent Inward Current
			11.2.1.3 Size Principle
		11.2.2 Interneurons
			11.2.2.1 Renshaw Cells
			11.2.2.2 Ia Interneurons
			11.2.2.3 Interneuronal Circuits
		11.2.3 Modulatory Effects
	11.3 Spinal Reflexes
		11.3.1 General
		11.3.2 Flexion Reflex
		11.3.3 Stretch Reflex
		11.3.4 Tendon Organ Reflex
		11.3.5 Supraspinal Influences
	11.4 Reflexes Elicited by Stimulation
		11.4.1 H-Reflex
		11.4.2 Tonic Vibration Reflex
	Summary of Main Concepts
Chapter 12 Brain Motor Centers and Pathways
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
	12.1 Hierarchical Organization
		12.1.1 Higher Levels
	12.2 Middle Hierarchical Level
		12.2.1 General
		12.2.2 Primary Motor Cortex
			12.2.2.1 Descending Pathway
		12.2.3 Basal Ganglia
		12.2.4 Cerebellum
			12.2.4.1 Gross Anatomy
			12.2.4.2 Afferent and Efferent Connections
			12.2.4.3 Cellular Organization and Features
			12.2.4.4 Cerebellar Plasticity
			12.2.4.5 Cerebellar Disorders
			12.2.4.6 Cerebellar Function
		12.2.5 Brainstem Nuclei and Descending Tracts
			12.2.5.1 Red Nucleus
			12.2.5.2 Reticular Nuclei
			12.2.5.3 Vestibular Nuclei
			12.2.5.4 Tectospinal Tract
			12.2.5.5 C3-C4 Propriospinal System
	Summary of Main Concepts
Chapter 13 Control of Movement and Posture
	Objective and Overview
	Learning Objectives
	13.1 Aspects of Movement
		13.1.1 Lever Action
		13.1.2 Co-contraction of Antagonist Muscles
		13.1.3 Feedforward and Feedback Control
		13.1.4 Motor Coordination
		13.1.5 Motor Equivalence
	13.2 Motor Learning and Memory
	13.3 Posture
		13.3.1 Balance
		13.3.2 Upright Posture
		13.3.3 Postural Adjustments
	13.4 Locomotion
		13.4.1 Phases of Gait
		13.4.2 Central Pattern Generators
		13.4.3 Extra-Spinal Influences
	13.5 The Equilibrium Point Hypothesis
		13.5.1 General Views of Motor Control
		13.5.2 Basics of the EP Hypothesis
		13.5.3 Elaboration of the EP Hypothesis
		13.5.4 Movement and Posture
		13.5.5 Agonist-Antagonist Co-contraction
		13.5.6 Motor Redundancy
	Summary of Main Concepts
Bibliography and References
Index