Natural hazards. Earth's processes as hazards, disasters, and catastrophes

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 4
About the Authors......Page 6
Brief Contents......Page 7
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 20
Acknowledgments......Page 23
1 Introduction to Natural Hazards......Page 24
CASE HISTORY: Earthquake in Haiti, 2010: Was This a Human-Caused Catastrophe?......Page 25
1.1 WHY STUDYING NATURAL HAZARDS IS IMPORTANT......Page 26
Hazard, Disaster, or Catastrophe......Page 27
Death and Damage Caused by Natural Hazards......Page 30
The Rock Cycle......Page 31
The Hydrologic Cycle......Page 32
1.4 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS FOR UNDERSTANDING NATURAL PROCESSES AS HAZARDS......Page 33
Hazards Are Natural Processes......Page 34
Forecast, Prediction, and Warning of Hazardous Events......Page 36
CONCEPT 2: Risk Analysis is an Important Component of Our Understanding of the Effects of Hazardous Processes......Page 38
Examples of Disasters in Densely Populated Areas......Page 39
Magnitude and Frequency of Hazardous Events......Page 40
BOX 1.1 CASE STUDY: Human Population through History......Page 41
BOX 1.2 CASE STUDY: The Magnitude-Frequency Concept......Page 42
Reactive Response: Impact of and Recovery from Disasters......Page 43
Anticipatory Response: Avoiding and Adjusting to Hazards......Page 44
1.5 MANY HAZARDS PROVIDE A NATURAL SERVICE FUNCTION......Page 45
Key Terms......Page 46
Critical Thinking Questions......Page 47
2 Internal Structure of Earth and Plate Tectonics......Page 48
CASE HISTORY: Two Cities on a Plate Boundary......Page 49
2.1 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH......Page 50
2.2 HOW WE KNOW ABOUT THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH......Page 52
Movement of the Lithospheric Plates......Page 53
Types of Plate Boundaries......Page 56
BOX 2.1 A CLOSER LOOK: The Wonder of Mountains......Page 58
Rates of Plate Motion......Page 60
Paleomagnetism......Page 61
Hot Spots......Page 64
2.5 PANGAEA AND PRESENT CONTINENTS......Page 65
2.6 HOW PLATE TECTONICS WORKS: PUTTING IT TOGETHER......Page 68
2.7 PLATE TECTONICS AND HAZARDS......Page 70
Critical Thinking Question......Page 73
3 Earthquakes......Page 74
CASE HISTORY: Earthquake Catastrophes: Lessons Learned......Page 75
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKES......Page 77
Earthquake Magnitude......Page 78
Earthquake Intensity......Page 79
Process of Faulting......Page 80
Fault Activity......Page 82
Tectonic Creep and Slow Earthquakes......Page 84
Seismic Waves......Page 85
Distance to the Epicenter......Page 86
Supershear......Page 89
Local Geologic Conditions......Page 91
3.5 GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS AT RISK FROM EARTHQUAKES......Page 92
Plate Boundary Earthquakes......Page 93
BOX 3.1 SURVIVOR STORY: Magnitude 8.8 Earthquake and Tsunami on the Coast of Chile......Page 96
Shaking and Ground Rupture......Page 98
Liquefaction......Page 100
Fires......Page 101
Disease......Page 102
Earthquakes Caused by Human Activity......Page 103
Estimation of Seismic Risk......Page 105
Short-Term Prediction......Page 106
BOX 3.2 A CLOSER LOOK: Paleoseismic Earthquake Hazard Evaluation......Page 108
BOX 3.3
 CASE STUDY: The Denali Fault Earthquake: Estimating Potential Ground Rupture Pays Off......Page 111
The Future of Earthquake Prediction......Page 112
BOX 3.4
 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: Andrea Donnellan, Earthquake Forecaster......Page 113
Community Adjustments to the Earthquake Hazard......Page 115
Personal Adjustments: Before, During, and after an Earthquake......Page 117
Summary......Page 118
Critical Thinking Questions......Page 120
HAZARD CITY: ASSIGNMENTS IN APPLIED GEOLOGY: Earthquake Damage Assessment......Page 121
4 Tsunamis......Page 122
CASE HISTORY: Indonesian Tsunami......Page 123
How Do Earthquakes Cause a Tsunami?......Page 128
4.2 REGIONS AT RISK......Page 130
BOX 4.1 SURVIVOR STORY: Tsunami in the Lowest Country on Earth......Page 132
4.3 EFFECTS OF TSUNAMIS AND LINKAGES WITH OTHER NATURAL HAZARDS......Page 134
4.6 MINIMIZING THE TSUNAMI HAZARD......Page 135
Land Use......Page 136
Probability Analysis......Page 138
Education......Page 139
Tsunami-Ready Status......Page 140
4.7 PERCEPTION AND PERSONAL ADJUSTMENT TO TSUNAMI HAZARD......Page 141
BOX 4.2 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: Jose Borrero—Tsunami Scientist......Page 142
REVISITING THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: Tsunami......Page 143
Review Questions......Page 144
HAZARD CITY: ASSIGNMENTS IN APPLIED GEOLOGY: Tsunami/Storm Surge......Page 145
5 Volcanoes......Page 146
CASE HISTORY: Mt. Unzen, 1991......Page 147
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO VOLCANOES......Page 149
Magma Properties......Page 150
Volcano Types......Page 152
Volcanic Features......Page 155
Volcano Origins......Page 158
5.3 EFFECTS OF VOLCANOES......Page 161
Lava Flows......Page 162
Pyroclastic Activity......Page 164
Poisonous Gases......Page 166
Debris Flows, Mudflows, and Other Mass Movements......Page 167
BOX 5.1 CASE STUDY: Volcanic Landslides and Tsunamis......Page 169
5.4 LINKAGES BETWEEN VOLCANOES AND OTHER NATURAL HAZARDS......Page 173
Mineral Resources......Page 175
Forecasting......Page 176
Volcanic Alert or Warning......Page 179
BOX 5.2 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: Chris Eisinger, Studying Active Volcanoes......Page 180
BOX 5.3 SURVIVOR STORY: A Close Call with Mount St. Helens......Page 181
Attempts to Control Lava Flows......Page 182
REVISITING THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: Volcanoes......Page 183
Key Terms......Page 184
HAZARD CITY: ASSIGNMENTS IN APPLIED GEOLOGY: Volcanic Hazard Assessment......Page 185
6 Flooding......Page 186
CASE HISTORY: Mississippi River Flooding 1973–2008......Page 187
6.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO RIVERS......Page 191
River Velocity, Discharge, Erosion, and Sediment Deposition......Page 193
Channel Patterns and Floodplain Formation......Page 195
BOX 6.1 CASE STUDY: Flooding on the Delta of the Ventura River......Page 196
6.2 FLOODING......Page 199
Flash Floods and Downstream Floods......Page 200
BOX 6.2 CASE STUDY: Magnitude and Frequency of Floods......Page 202
BOX 6.3 SURVIVOR STORY: Flash Flood......Page 204
6.3 GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS AT RISK FOR FLOODING......Page 206
6.5 NATURAL SERVICE FUNCTIONS......Page 207
Land-Use Changes......Page 208
Urbanization and Flooding......Page 209
BOX 6.4 CASE STUDY: The Grand Canyon Flood of 1996......Page 210
BOX 6.5 CASE STUDY: Flash Floods in Eastern Ohio......Page 214
The Structural Approach......Page 215
Channel Restoration: Alternative to Channelization......Page 218
Perception of the Flood Hazard......Page 219
BOX 6.6 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: Professor Nicholas Pinter, Southern Illinois University......Page 222
Relocating People from Floodplains: Examples from North Carolina and North Dakota......Page 224
Personal Adjustment: What to Do and What Not to Do......Page 225
REVISITING THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: Flooding......Page 226
Key Terms......Page 227
Critical Thinking Questions......Page 228
HAZARD CITY: ASSIGNMENTS IN APPLIED GEOLOGY: Flood Insurance Rate Maps......Page 229
7 Mass Wasting......Page 230
CASE HISTORY: La Conchita: Southern California Landslide Disaster of 2005—Lessons Learned......Page 231
Slope Processes......Page 234
Types of Landslides......Page 235
Forces on Slopes......Page 236
BOX 7.1 A CLOSER LOOK: Forces on Slopes......Page 239
Snow Avalanches......Page 245
7.2 GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS AT RISK FROM LANDSLIDES......Page 246
Effects of Landslides......Page 247
7.5 HUMAN INTERACTION WITH LANDSLIDES......Page 248
BOX 7.2 SURVIVOR STORY: Landslide......Page 249
BOX 7.3 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: Bob Rasely, Mass Wasting Specialist......Page 250
Urbanization and Landslides......Page 251
BOX 7.4 CASE STUDY: Portuguese Bend, California......Page 252
Identification of Potential Landslides......Page 255
Prevention of Landslides......Page 256
Landslide Warning Systems......Page 257
Perception of the Landslide Hazard......Page 259
Adjustments to the Landslide Hazard......Page 260
REVISITING THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: Mass Wasting......Page 261
Summary......Page 262
Critical Thinking Questions......Page 263
Selected Web Resourcess......Page 264
HAZARD CITY: ASSIGNMENTS IN APPLIED GEOLOGY: Landslide Hazard Assessment......Page 265
8 Subsidence and Soils......Page 266
CASE HISTORY: Venice Is Sinking......Page 267
Soil Color......Page 268
Relative Soil Profile Development......Page 270
Water in Soils......Page 271
Soil Classification......Page 272
Karst......Page 274
BOX 8.1 SURVIVOR STORY: Sinkhole Drains Lake......Page 278
Sediment and Soil Compaction......Page 279
Expansive Soils......Page 281
BOX 8.2 CASE STUDY: Subsidence of the Mississippi Delta......Page 282
8.3 REGIONS AT RISK FOR SUBSIDENCE AND SOIL VOLUME CHANGE......Page 286
Sinkhole Formation......Page 288
Coastal Flooding and Loss of Wetlands......Page 289
Damage Caused by Soil Volume Change......Page 290
8.5 LINKAGES BETWEEN SUBSIDENCE, SOIL VOLUME CHANGE, AND OTHER NATURAL HAZARDS......Page 291
Unique Ecosystems......Page 292
Underground Mining......Page 293
Altering Surface Drainage......Page 296
BOX 8.3 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: Helen Delano, Environmental Geologist......Page 297
8.8 MINIMIZING SUBSIDENCE AND SOIL VOLUME CHANGE......Page 298
Adjustment to Subsidence and Soil Volume Change......Page 299
Summary......Page 300
Review Questions......Page 302
Critical Thinking Questions......Page 303
9 Atmosphere and Severe Weather......Page 304
CASE HISTORY: Tri-State Tornado, March 18, 1925......Page 305
Heat Transfer......Page 307
Energy Behavior......Page 308
Structure of the Atmosphere......Page 310
Atmospheric Pressure and Circulation......Page 312
Fronts......Page 314
BOX 9.1 A CLOSER LOOK: Coriolis Effect......Page 316
Thunderstorms......Page 319
BOX 9.2 CASE STUDY: Lightning......Page 321
BOX 9.3 SURVIVOR STORY: Struck by Lightning: Michael Utley came within inches of death when lightning struck him on a Cape Cod golf course......Page 323
Tornadoes......Page 324
Blizzards and Ice Storms......Page 327
BOX 9.4 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: Sarah Tessendorf–Severe Storm Meteorologist......Page 329
Fog......Page 330
Dust and Sand Storms......Page 331
BOX 9.5 CASE STUDY: The Great Northeastern Ice Storm of 1998......Page 332
9.6 HUMAN INTERACTION WITH WEATHER......Page 335
9.7 LINKAGES WITH OTHER HAZARDS......Page 336
Forecasting and Predicting Weather Hazards......Page 337
BOX 9.6 CASE STUDY: Europe’s Hottest Summer in More Than 500 Years......Page 338
Adjustment to the Severe Weather Hazard......Page 342
REVISITING THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: Atmosphere and Severe Weather......Page 343
Summary......Page 344
Critical Thinking Questions......Page 345
Selected Web Resources......Page 346
10 Hurricanes and Extratropical......Page 348
CASE HISTORY: Hurricane Katrina......Page 349
10.1 INTRODUCTION TO CYCLONES......Page 355
BOX 10.1 SURVIVOR STORY: Hurricane Katrina......Page 356
Classification......Page 358
Naming......Page 359
Tropical Cyclones......Page 360
Extratropical Cyclones......Page 363
10.3 GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS AT RISK FOR CYCLONES......Page 366
10.4 EFFECTS OF CYCLONES......Page 369
Storm Surge......Page 370
High Winds......Page 371
Heavy Rains......Page 372
10.6 NATURAL SERVICE FUNCTIONS OF CYCLONES......Page 373
10.7 HUMAN INTERACTION WITH CYCLONES......Page 374
Forecasts and Warnings......Page 375
BOX 10.2 CASE STUDY: Hurricane Intensity and Warm Seas—Opal and Katrina Meet “Eddy”......Page 376
BOX 10.3 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: The Hurricane Hunters......Page 379
Adjustment to Hurricanes and Extratr opical Cyclones......Page 381
REVISITING THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: Hurricanes and Extratropical Cyclones......Page 383
Summary......Page 384
Critical Thinking Questions......Page 385
Selected Web Resources......Page 386
HAZARD CITY: ASSIGNMENTS IN APPLIED GEOLOGY: Hurricane/Tsunami Hazard Assessment......Page 387
11 Coastal Hazards......Page 388
CASE HISTORY: Folly Island......Page 389
11.1 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL HAZARDS......Page 392
Waves......Page 393
BOX 11.1 CASE STUDY: Rogue Waves......Page 394
Beach Form and Processes......Page 397
11.3 SEA LEVEL CHANGE......Page 399
11.4 GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS AT RISK FOR COASTAL HAZARDS......Page 400
Rip Currents......Page 401
BOX 11.2 SURVIVOR STORY: Rip Current: Two experienced swimmers rescued on Florida beach......Page 403
Coastal Erosion......Page 404
BOX 11.3 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: Rob Thieler, Marine Geologist......Page 405
BOX 11.4 A CLOSER LOOK: Beach Budget......Page 407
11.6 LINKAGES BETWEEN COASTAL PROCESSES AND OTHER NATURAL HAZARDS......Page 409
The Atlantic Coast......Page 410
The Gulf Coast......Page 411
11.9 MINIMIZING THE EFFECTS OF COASTAL HAZARDS......Page 412
Hard Stabilization......Page 415
Soft Stabilization......Page 417
Adjustment to Coastal Hazards......Page 419
BOX 11.5 A CLOSER LOOK: E-Lines and E-Zones......Page 420
BOX 11.6 CASE STUDY: Moving the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse......Page 421
BOX 11.7 CASE STUDY: Coastal Erosion at Pointe du Hoc, France......Page 423
REVISITING THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: Coastal Erosion......Page 425
Summary......Page 426
Review Questions......Page 427
Critical Thinking Questions......Page 428
HAZARD CITY: ASSIGNMENTS IN APPLIED GEOLOGY: Shoreline Property Assessment......Page 429
12 Climate and Climate Change......Page 430
CASE HISTORY: What Does Our Recent History Tell Us about Potential Consequences of Global Warming?......Page 431
12.1 GLOBAL CHANGE AND EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE: AN OVERVIEW......Page 432
Permanent and Variable Gases......Page 433
Glaciations......Page 434
12.4 HOW WE STUDY: PAST CLIMATE CHANGE AND MAKE PREDICTIONS......Page 437
Global Climate Models......Page 440
The Greenhouse Effect......Page 443
Why does Climate Change?......Page 445
Anthropogenic Forcing......Page 450
Glaciers and Sea Ice......Page 451
Climate Patterns......Page 454
BOX 12.1 A CLOSER LOOK: El Niño......Page 455
Wildfires......Page 457
BOX 12.2 SURVIVOR STORY: Residents of the Maldive Islands......Page 458
Adaptation of Species to Global Warming......Page 459
BOX 12.3 A CLOSER LOOK: Marine Ecosystems and Climate Change......Page 460
12.8 STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL WARMING......Page 461
BOX 12.4 A CLOSER LOOK: Abrupt Climate Change......Page 464
BOX 12.5 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: Sally Benson—Climate and Energy Scientist......Page 465
REVISITING THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: Climate Change......Page 466
Review Question......Page 467
Critical Thinking Questions......Page 468
HAZARD CITY: ASSIGNMENTS IN APPLIED GEOLOGY: Snowpack Monitoring......Page 469
13 Wildfires......Page 470
CASE HISTORY: Wildfires in 2002—Colorado and Arizona......Page 471
13.2 WILDFIRE AS A PROCESS......Page 472
BOX 13.1 CASE STUDY: Indonesian Fires of 1997–1998......Page 473
Fire Environment......Page 475
13.3 GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS AT RISKFROM WILDFIRES......Page 477
Effects on the Geologic Environment......Page 479
Effects on the Atmospheric Environment......Page 480
BOX 13.2 CASE STUDY: Wildfire in Southern California......Page 481
Effects on the Biological Environment......Page 484
BOX 13.3 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: Wildfires......Page 485
Yellowstone Fires of 1988......Page 487
Fire Management......Page 488
Perception of the Wildfire Hazard......Page 489
Adjustments to the Wildfire Hazard......Page 490
Personal Adjustment to the Fire Hazard......Page 491
BOX 13.4 SURVIVOR STORY: Two Wildfires in the Hills above Santa Barbara, California......Page 492
Summary......Page 494
Critical Thinking Questions......Page 495
14 Impacts and Extinctions......Page 496
CASE HISTORY: The Tunguska Event......Page 497
14.1 EARTH’S PLACE IN SPACE......Page 498
Asteroids, Meteoroids, and Comets......Page 500
14.2 AIRBURSTS AND IMPACTS......Page 501
Impact Craters......Page 502
BOX 14.1 SURVIVOR STORY: Meteorites in Chicagoland......Page 503
14.3 MASS EXTINCTIONS......Page 509
BOX 14.2 CASE STUDY: Uniformitarianism, Gradualism, and Catastrophe......Page 510
K-T Boundary Mass Extinction......Page 511
Risk Related to Impacts......Page 515
BOX 14.3 CASE STUDY: Possible Extraterrestrial Impact 12,900 years ago......Page 516
Minimizing the Impact Hazard......Page 519
BOX 14.4 CASE STUDY: Near-Earth Objects......Page 520
BOX 14.5 PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: Dr. Michael J. S. Belton: Is Earth Headed for Another Deep Impact?......Page 522
REVISITING THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: Impacts and Extinctions......Page 523
Critical Thinking Questions......Page 524
APPENDIX A: MINERALS......Page 525
APPENDIX B: ROCKS......Page 533
APPENDIX C: MAPS AND RELATED TOPICS......Page 535
APPENDIX D: HOW GEOLOGISTS DETERMINE GEOLOGIC TIME......Page 543
References......Page 547
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