Natural Capital and Exploitation of the Deep Ocean

Cover
Natural Capital and Exploitation of the Deep Ocean
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of contributors
CHAPTER 1: Introduction: Evolution of knowledge, exploration, and exploitation of the deep ocean
	1.1 Introduction
		1.1.1 Natural capital defined
		1.1.2 Deep-ocean morphology and abiotic characteristics
		1.1.3 Diversity and biomass
		1.1.4 The legal framework of the ocean
	1.2 Exploration, technical development, and analysis leading to economic benefits of the deep sea
		1.2.1 Nineteenth century
		1.2.2 Early twentieth century
		1.2.3 1920s and 1930s
		1.2.4 1940s to 1960
		1.2.5 1960s
		1.2.6 1970s
		1.2.7 1980s
		1.2.8 1990s
		1.2.9 2000s
		1.2.10 2010s
	1.3 And the future?
	Acknowledgements
	References
CHAPTER 2: A primer on the economics of natural capital and its relevance to deep-sea exploitation and conservation
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Human perceptions and uses of the deep sea
	2.3 Natural capital and ecosystem services: stocks and flows
	2.4 Qualitative examples of natural capital accounting for the deep sea
		2.4.1 Natural capital of the open-oceans biome
		2.4.2 Natural capital of the world capture fishery stocks
		2.4.3 Natural capital of the ocean twilight zone’s fish stocks
		2.4.4 Natural capital of the ocean’s biological carbon pump
		2.4.5 Natural capital of deep-seabed minerals
		2.4.6 Natural capital of the cultural aspects of the deep sea
		2.4.7 Natural capital of the passive use of deep-sea hydrothermal vents
	2.5 Emerging institutions for deep-sea governance
	2.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
	Appendix
		A1 Theoretical framework for sustainable development
		A2 Accounting price for global public goods
		A3 Accounting price for natural capital
			A3.1 The classical bioeconomic model
			A3.2 The Fenichel et al. (2018) framework
CHAPTER 3: The legal framework for resource management in the deep sea
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 National law
	3.3 International law
		3.3.1 Deep-sea fishing
		3.3.2 Pollution
		3.3.3 Deep-sea mining
		3.3.4 Marine scientific research
		3.3.5 Current gaps in the law
	3.4 The role of scientists in ocean governance
	3.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
	International agreements cited
CHAPTER 4: Exploitation of deep-sea fishery resources
	4.1 The development of deep-sea fisheries
		4.1.2 Deep-sea fishing methods
		4.1.3 The footprint of deep-sea fisheries
	4.2 Environment and life histories/ energetics of deep-sea demersal fishes
	4.3 Impacts of deep-sea fisheries and potential for recovery
		4.3.1 Impacts on fish populations
		4.3.2 Impacts on habitat
		4.3.3 Potential for recovery of fish populations
		4.3.4 Recovery of impacted habitat
	4.4 Management and stakeholder processes
		4.4.1 International debate and negotiations over deep-sea fisheries
		4.4.2 Implementation of the resolutions: protection of deep-sea ecosystems and sustainable deep-sea fisheries on the high seas
	4.5 The future of deep-sea fisheries
	Acknowledgements
	References
CHAPTER 5: Deep-sea mining: processes and impacts
	5.1 Deep-sea mining
	5.2 Seafloor minerals
		5.2.1 Abyssal Plains and polymetallic nodules
		5.2.2 Seamounts, ridges, and polymetallic crusts
		5.2.3 Hydrothermal vents and seafloor massive sulphides
	5.3 Fauna living in association with mineral accumulations
		5.3.1 Polymetallic nodules
		5.3.2 Polymetallic crusts
		5.3.3 Hydrothermal vents
	5.4 Regulations and jurisdictions
	5.5 Practicalities of deep-sea mining
	5.6 Environmental impacts of deep-sea mining
		5.6.1 Wide-reaching impacts across depths and habitats
		5.6.2 Impacts of mining seafloor massive sulphides
		5.6.3 Environmental impacts of mining polymetallic nodules
		5.6.4 The effects of mining polymetallic crusts
	5.7 Cross-ecosystem impacts: degradation and recovery
	5.8 Knowledge gaps: a need to deepen understanding
	5.9 Environmental management: reducing the impact of deep-ocean mining
		5.9.1 Environmental management processes
		5.9.2 Environmental management responsibilities
	5.10 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
CHAPTER 6: The natural capital of offshore oil, gas, and methane hydrates in the World Ocean
	6.1 The natural capital of hydrocarbon reserves
		6.1.1 Oil and gas reserves in offshore systems
		6.1.2 The potential of deep-sea gas hydrate reservoirs
	6.2 The ecology of offshorehydrocarbon-associated ecosystems: a brief sketch
	6.3 Operational impacts
		6.3.1 Physical and chemical impacts on organisms and ecosystems
		6.3.2 Long-term and climate impacts
	6.4 Best practices for exploitation and management
	6.5 Spatial overlap between ecological assets and oil leases creates challenges
	6.6 Ecosystem recovery from operational impacts
	6.7 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
CHAPTER 7: The exploitation of deep-sea biodiversity: components, capacity, and conservation
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Exploitable components of deep-sea biodiversity
		7.2.1 Deep-sea biodiversity as inspiration for innovation
		7.2.2 ‘Actual or potential’ value
	7.3 Capacity: capturing benefits
		7.3.1 Benefits
		7.3.2 Capturing benefits: the role of science and technology
		7.3.3 Conservation
	7.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
CHAPTER 8: The deep ocean’s link to culture and global processes: nonextractive value of the deep sea
	8.1 Ecosystem services and nonuse values
	8.2 A diverse and inspiring dark sea
		8.2.1 The deep, dark water
		8.2.2 The expanse of marvellous mud
		8.2.3 Habitats that break the global mud belt
	8.3 Cultural services
	8.4 Deep-sea science: exploration and research to understand the past, present, and future earth
	8.5 Supporting and regulating services
		8.5.1 Primer on deep-ocean flow and function
		8.5.2 Nutrients for the shallows that fuel fisheries and oxygenate the atmosphere
		8.5.3 A bottom-up view of vents and seeps
	8.6 An overlap of use and nonuse
	8.7 Current state of valuation of nonuse values in the deep sea
	8.8. Summary
	Acknowledgements
	References
CHAPTER 9: Climate change cumulative impacts on deep-sea ecosystems
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Predicting climate-change impacts: projected changes and species vulnerability
		9.2.1 Earth System Model projections and observations at depth
		9.2.2 Species sensitivity to change in natural abiotic conditions
	9.3 Identifying the drivers and impacts of climate change in deep-sea ecosystems
		9.3.1 Export of organic resources at depth
		9.3.2 Combination of climate stressors in space and time
	9.4 Required monitoring to forecast vulnerability
	9.5 Climate policy and the deep sea
	9.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
CHAPTER 10: Space, the final resource
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Organised, deliberate waste disposal
		10.2.1 Particulate waste: sewage sludge, dredge spoils, and mining tailings
		10.2.2 Marine litter: shipping and commercial fishing sources
		10.2.3 Radioactive waste
		10.2.4 Chemical and pharmaceutical waste
		10.2.5 Munitions
	10.3 Inadvertent disposal
		10.3.1 Shipwrecks and maritime accidents
		10.3.2 Microplastics
		10.4 Buffer space
			10.4.1 Noise
			10.4.2 Heat absorption and transfer and CO2 uptake
		10.5 Technology space
			10.5.1 Submarine telecommunication cables—connecting the continents
			10.5.2 Deep-ocean military and scientific infrastructure
		10.6 Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
CHAPTER 11: A holistic vision for our future deep ocean
	11.1 Challenges and possibilities for a healthy ocean
	11.2 Cumulative and synergistic interactions
	11.3 Advancing science in policy
	Acknowledgements
	References
Name index
Subject index