Nanotechnology in Skin, Soft Tissue, and Bone Infections

Preface\nContents\nContributors\nPart I: Skin Infections\n	Chapter 1: Nitric Oxide-Releasing Nanomaterials and Skin Infections\n		1.1 Introduction\n		1.2 NO and Human Skin\n		1.3 Delivering NO to Human Skin\n		1.4 Nanoparticles for Dermatological Applications\n			1.4.1 Liposomes\n			1.4.2 Polymeric Nanoparticles\n			1.4.3 Metallic Nanoparticles\n		1.5 NO-Releasing Nanomaterials for Biomedical Purposes\n			1.5.1 NO-Releasing Nanoparticles in the Management of Skin Infection\n				1.5.1.1 Bacterial Infections\n				1.5.1.2 Fungal Infections\n				1.5.1.3 Parasitic Infections\n		1.6 Conclusions\n		References\n	Chapter 2: Metal Nanoparticle Based Antibacterial Nanocomposites for Skin Infections\n		2.1 Introduction\n		2.2 Anatomy and Physicochemical Properties of Skin\n		2.3 Type of Bacterial Infections in Skin\n		2.4 Emergence of Various Types of Metal Nanoparticles (MNPs) and Its Composites\n		2.5 Essences of New Class of Nanoscale Materials Suitable Against Skin Infections\n		2.6 Nanoscale Materials as Antibacterial Skincare Agents\n			2.6.1 Metal Nanoparticles\n				2.6.1.1 Silver Nanoparticles (Ag NPs)\n				2.6.1.2 Gold Nanoparticles (Au NPs)\n			2.6.2 Metal Oxide NPs\n				2.6.2.1 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles\n				2.6.2.2 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles\n				2.6.2.3 Copper Oxide Nanoparticles\n				2.6.2.4 Other Metal Oxide Nanoparticles\n			2.6.3 Nanocomposites\n		2.7 Proposed Mathematical Models of Penetration of NPs Through Skin\n		2.8 Diffusion of NPs Through Skin\n			2.8.1 Mathematical Model for Diffusion Through Skin\n			2.8.2 Metal and Metal Oxide NPs Diffusion Through Skin\n		2.9 Conclusion\n		References\n	Chapter 3: Combination Therapy Using Metal Nanoparticles for Skin Infections\n		3.1 Introduction\n		3.2 Skin Infections\n		3.3 Types of Skin Infections\n			3.3.1 Bacterial Skin Infections\n			3.3.2 Fungal Skin Infections\n				3.3.2.1 Athlete’s Foot or Tinea pedis\n				3.3.2.2 Jock Itch or Tinea cruris\n				3.3.2.3 Ringworm or Tinea corporis\n				3.3.2.4 Yeast Infections\n			3.3.3 Viral Skin Infections\n				3.3.3.1 Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)\n				3.3.3.2 Chickenpox (Varicella zoster)\n				3.3.3.3 Shingle (Herpes zoster)\n				3.3.3.4 Molluscum Contagiosum\n				3.3.3.5 Measles and Rubella\n				3.3.3.6 Hand-Foot-and-Mouth Disease\n				3.3.3.7 Roseola\n				3.3.3.8 Warts\n			3.3.4 Parasitic Infections\n		3.4 Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles on Skin Infections\n			3.4.1 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)\n			3.4.2 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)\n			3.4.3 Copper Nanoparticles (CuNPs)\n			3.4.4 Copper Oxide Nanoparticles (CuO NPs)\n			3.4.5 Titanium Oxide Nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) and Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs)\n		3.5 Human Skin Penetration of Metallic Nanoparticles\n		3.6 Combined Therapy of Metallic Nanoparticles in Bacterial Skin Infections\n		3.7 Combined Therapy of Metallic Nanoparticles in Fungal Skin Infections\n		3.8 Combined Therapy of Metallic Nanoparticles in Viral Skin Infections\n		3.9 Combined Therapy of Metal Nanoparticles in Parasitic Skin Infections\n		3.10 Nanoparticles and Skin Cancers\n		3.11 Conclusions and Future Perspectives\n		References\n	Chapter 4: Applications of Nanometals in Cutaneous Infections\n		4.1 Introduction\n		4.2 Acne Vulgaris: Conventional Treatment and Nanotherapy\n		4.3 Mycoses: Definition, Etiology, Conventional Treatment, Nanotherapy\n		4.4 Leishmaniasis: Definition, Etiology, Conventional Treatment, Nanotherapy\n		4.5 Wounds: Definition, Etiology, Conventional Treatment, Nanotherapy\n		4.6 Toxicity of Metallic and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles\n		4.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives\n		References\n	Chapter 5: Antifungal Nanotherapy: A Novel Approach to Combat Superficial Fungal Infections\n		5.1 Introduction\n		5.2 Nanoparticles for Superficial Fungal Infections\n			5.2.1 Antifungal Metal Nanoparticles\n				5.2.1.1 Chemically Synthesized Nanoparticles\n				5.2.1.2 Biologically Synthesized Nanoparticles\n			5.2.2 Non-metal Antifungal Nanoparticles\n		5.3 Nanoparticles as Antifungal-Carriers for Superficial Fungal Infections\n			5.3.1 Liposomal Drug Delivery Systems\n			5.3.2 Nanofibrous Drug Delivery Systems\n		5.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives\n		References\n	Chapter 6: Role of Nanostructured Materials in the Treatment of Superficial Yeast Infections\n		6.1 Introduction\n		6.2 Nanomaterials and Biomedical Applications of Nanotechnology\n		6.3 Role of Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Yeast Infections\n		6.4 Nanoformulations\n		6.5 Conclusion\n		References\n	Chapter 7: Essential Oil Encapsulated in Nanoparticles for Treatment of Skin Infections\n		7.1 Introduction\n		7.2 Nanoparticles Encapsulated with Essential Oils\n		7.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives\n		References\nPart II: Soft Tissue Infections\n	Chapter 8: Nanotechnological Approaches to Manage Diabetic Foot Ulcer\n		8.1 Introduction\n		8.2 Pathology of Diabetic Foot Ulcer\n		8.3 Evaluation and Standard of Care: Diabetic Foot Ulcer\n		8.4 Nanotechnology and DFUs\n			8.4.1 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)\n			8.4.2 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnONPs)\n			8.4.3 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)\n			8.4.4 Copper-Based Nanoparticles\n			8.4.5 Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles (CeO2 NPs)\n			8.4.6 Polymeric Nanoparticles\n			8.4.7 Peptide-Based Nanoparticles (Growth Factors-GFs)\n			8.4.8 Antibiotics-Based Nanoparticles\n			8.4.9 Antioxidant-Based Nanoparticles (NO-NPs)\n			8.4.10 Lipid-Based Nanoparticles\n			8.4.11 siRNA Incorporated Nanoparticles\n			8.4.12 Stem Cell-Based Nanoparticles\n		8.5 Conclusion\n		8.6 Future Perspectives\n		References\n	Chapter 9: Silver Nanoparticles in Wound Infections: Present Status and Future Prospects\n		9.1 Introduction\n		9.2 Silver-Based Antimicrobials in Wound Infection\n		9.3 Silver, Wound Infection, and Healing\n		9.4 The Effect of Silver Nanoparticles on Wounds\n		9.5 Mechanisms of Silver Resistance\n		9.6 Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles\n		9.7 Conclusion\n		References\n	Chapter 10: Applications of Chitosan and Nanochitosan in Formulation of Novel Antibacterial and Wound Healing Agents\n		10.1 Introduction\n		10.2 Antibacterial Activities of Chitosan\n		10.3 Wound Healing Activities of Chitosan\n		10.4 Chitosan/Cellulose\n		10.5 Chitosan/Alginic Acid\n		10.6 Chitosan/Collagen\n		10.7 Hyaluronic Acid\n		10.8 Starch\n		10.9 Chondroitin Sulfate\n		10.10 Conclusion and Future Perspectives\n		References\n	Chapter 11: Nanobiotechnological Strategies for Treatment of Tegumentary and Visceral Leishmaniasis Including Resistance Strains\n		11.1 Introduction\n		11.2 Current Treatment and Unresponsive Drugs\n		11.3 Drug Delivery System Against Leishmaniasis\n			11.3.1 Transdermal Drug Delivery Nanocarrier as Strategy for Leishmanicidal Activity\n			11.3.2 Liposome-Based Formulation\n			11.3.3 Cyclodextrin-Based Formulation\n			11.3.4 Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System\n			11.3.5 Transfersomes\n			11.3.6 Ethosomes\n			11.3.7 Niosomes\n			11.3.8 Microemulsion, Nanoemulsion, and Pickering Emulsion\n		11.4 Vaccines and New Perspectives\n		11.5 Conclusion\n		References\n	Chapter 12: Additive Manufacturing and Nanotherapeutics: Present Status and Future Perspectives in Wound Healing\n		12.1 Introduction\n		12.2 Current Status and Scope of Nanotherapeutics in Wound Healing\n			12.2.1 Nanomaterials as Intrinsic Therapeutic Agents\n			12.2.2 Nanomaterials as Carriers for Therapeutic Agents\n		12.3 3D Scaffolds for Wound Healing: Scope for Additive Manufacturing Techniques\n		12.4 Additive Manufacturing and Nanotherapeutics\n		12.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective\n		References\nPart III: Bone Infections and Toxicity\n	Chapter 13: The Bone Biology and the Nanotechnology for Bone Engineering and Bone Diseases\n		13.1 Introduction\n		13.2 The Bone Tissue\n		13.3 Types of Bone\n		13.4 Osteogenesis\n		13.5 Structure and Micro-architecture of the Bone\n		13.6 Vascularization and Innervation of the Bone\n		13.7 Bone Repair: Stages of the Bone Healing\n		13.8 Basic Concepts in Implantology\n		13.9 Biomaterials and Nanotechnology\n		13.10 Nanotechnology in Bone Tissue Engineering\n		13.11 Nanotechnology in Bone Diseases\n		13.12 Conclusion and Future Perspectives\n		References\n	Chapter 14: Diabetic Foot Osteomyelitis: Control and Therapy Through Nanotechnology\n		14.1 Introduction\n		14.2 Pathophysiology\n		14.3 Microbiology\n		14.4 Classification of Diabetic Foot Osteomyelitis\n		14.5 Diagnosis\n			14.5.1 Inflammatory Markers and Blood Tests\n			14.5.2 Bone Exposure and Probe-to-Bone Tests\n			14.5.3 Plain Radiographs\n			14.5.4 Radiolabeled White Blood Cell Scanning\n			14.5.5 Computed Tomography (CT)\n			14.5.6 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)\n		14.6 Medical Management\n			14.6.1 Antimicrobial Treatment\n				14.6.1.1 Duration\n			14.6.2 Traditional Surgical Management\n			14.6.3 Conservative Surgery or Medicosurgical Management\n		14.7 Clinical Evaluation\n		14.8 Nanotechnology in OM\n			14.8.1 Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles\n			14.8.2 Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles\n			14.8.3 Poly (Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) (PLGA) Nanoparticles\n			14.8.4 Metallic Nanoparticles\n			14.8.5 Silver Nanoparticles\n			14.8.6 Titanium Nanoparticles\n			14.8.7 Carbon Nanotubes\n			14.8.8 Lipid Nanoparticles\n		14.9 Conclusions\n		References\n	Chapter 15: Genotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) in In Vitro and In Vivo Models\n		15.1 Introduction\n		15.2 Mechanisms of Nanoparticle-Induced Genotoxicity\n		15.3 Methods for Genotoxicity Testing\n			15.3.1 Ames Test\n			15.3.2 Chromosome Aberration Test\n			15.3.3 Comet Assay\n			15.3.4 Cytokinesis-Blocked Micronucleus Assay\n			15.3.5 HPRT Forward Mutation Assay\n			15.3.6 g-H2AX Staining\n			15.3.7 8-Hydroxydeoxyguanosine DNA Adducts\n		15.4 Genotoxicity of Silver NPs (Ag-NPs)\n		15.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives\n		References\nIndex