Nanostructured Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries

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Engineering Materials Series
Nanostructured Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
Copyright
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Introduction to Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
	Introduction, History, Advantages and Main Problems in Lithium/Sulfur Batteries Systems
		1. Introduction and History
		2. Advantages
			2.1 Higher Energy Density
			2.2 High Coulombic Efficiency
			2.3 Non Self-discharge
			2.4 High Charge/Discharge Rates
			2.5 Cost and Material Availability
			2.6 Wide Operating Temperature Range
			2.7 Improved Safety
			2.8 Environmental Friendliness
		3. Main Limitations
			3.1 The Non-electronic Conductivity Nature of Sulfur
			3.2 Formation of Insoluble Species (Li2S) and Large Volume Expansion in the Cathode
			3.3 Formation of Dissolved Species and the Shuttle Effect
			3.4 The Use of Li Anode
		4. Conclusion
		References
	Electrochemistry and Basic Reaction Mechanism of Lithium Metal/Sulfur Batteries
		1. Introduction
		2. The Equilibrium Between Elemental Sulfur and Li2S
		3. Conclusions
		References
	Characterization Methods for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
		1. Introduction
		2. Electrochemical Characterization Methods
			2.1 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
			2.2 Cyclic Voltammetry (CV)
			2.3 Galvanostatic Charge and Discharge (GCD)
			2.4 Capacity Measurement
			2.5 Cycling
		3. Microscopic Characterization Methods
			3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
			3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
			3.3 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
			3.4 Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy (SECM)
		4. Conclusion
		References
Host Nanostructured Materials for Sulfur Cathode
	Typical Carbon-Host Materials
		1. Introduction
		2. Carbon-Based Materials
		3. Porous Carbon Materials
		4. Graphene Materials
		5. Carbon Nanotube/Fibre Materials
		6. Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	One-Dimensional Carbon-Based Host Materials
		1. Introduction
			1.1 CNTs
			1.2 CNFs
		2. 1D Carbon–Carbon Hybrid Hosts
		3. Polar 1D Carbon-Based Host Materials
			3.1 Heteroatom Doping
			3.2 Composite with Metal-Containing Compounds
			3.3 Methods of Synthesis of 1D Polar Hybrids
		4. Summary and Outlook
		References
	Two Dimensional Carbon-Host Materials
		1. Introduction
		2. 2-D Carbon Host Materials for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries from an Experimental Viewpoint
			2.1 Graphene, Graphene Oxide, and Reduced Graphene Oxide
			2.2 Doped Graphene-Based Materials
		3. Catalytic Effects in Li–S Batteries in the Case of 2-D Carbon-Based Materials from a Theoretical Viewpoint
			3.1 Molecular Adsorption Model
			3.2 Lithium-Ion Diffusion and Li2S Decomposition
			3.3 Free Energy Model
			3.4 d–p Band Center Model
			3.5 Modeling Considering Activation Barriers
		4. Conclusions
		References
	Three Dimensional Carbon Host Materials
		1. Introduction
		2. Need of Energy Storage Systems
		3. Lithium Sulfur Batteries
		4. Carbonaceous Nanomaterials
		5. Preparation Techniques
			5.1 Hard-Templating Approach
			5.2 Soft-Templating Approach
			5.3 Self-Templating Approach
			5.4 Ice-Templating Approach
		6. Electrochemical Performance of Three Dimensional (Bulky) Carbon Host Materials
			6.1 Carbon-Foam Based Cathode
			6.2 Carbon-Cloth Based Cathode
		7. Summary and Future Outlooks
		References
	Polymer Derived Carbon-Host Materials
		1. Introduction
		2. Polymer-Derived Activated Carbon as Sulfur Hosts
		3. Heteroatom-Doped Polymer-Derived Sulfur Hosts
		4. Porous Polymer-Derived Sulfur Host
		5. Conclusions
		References
	Binder-Free Sulfur Host Materials
		1. Introduction
		2. Binder-Free Carbon-Based Sulfur Hosts
			2.1 Carbon Nanotube Film/foam
			2.2 Carbon Fiber
			2.3 Graphene Film/Foam/Sponge
		3. Binder-Free Polar Metal Compounds-Based Sulfur Hosts
			3.1 Metal Oxides/Metal Sulfides
			3.2 Metal Carbides/nitrides
			3.3 Hybrid Materials
			3.4 Mxene-Based Architectures
		4. Binder-Free Polymer-Based Sulfur Host
		5. Conclusion
		References
	Metal Oxides as Sulfur Host Cathodes
		1. Introduction
		2. Interaction Between Metal Oxide Hosts and Sulfur Species
			2.1 Confinement of Metal Oxide Hosts
			2.2 Catalysis of Metal Oxide Hosts
		3. Metal Oxide Hosts in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
			3.1 Cobalt-Based Oxides
			3.2 Titanium-Based Oxides
			3.3 Manganese-Based Oxides
			3.4 Iron-Based Oxides
			3.5 Mixed Metal Oxides
			3.6 Other Oxides
		4. Design Strategies of Metal Oxide Hosts
			4.1 Heterostructures
			4.2 Vacancies
			4.3 Morphology Engineering
		5. Summary and Perspective
		References
Nanostructured Lithium Sulfide Cathode Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
	Problems and Challenges in Lithium Sulphide Cathode
		1. Introduction
		2. Problems and Challenges
			2.1 Volume Expansion and Deterioration Due to Sulphur Lithiation
			2.2 Dendrite Formation on Lithium Metal Anode
			2.3 Over-Potential and Activation Issues in Li2S Cathodes
			2.4 Issues with Sulphur Cathode Synthesis
			2.5 Electrolyte-Related Shuttle Effect
			2.6 LiPS Transport and Diffusion
		3. Summary and Future Perspectives
		References
	Lithium Sulfide (Li2S)-Metal Nanocomposites
		1. Introduction
		2. Synthesis and Characterization of Li2S/Metal Nanocomposites
			2.1 Ball Milling
			2.2 Carbothermal Reduction
			2.3 Lithiothermic Reaction
			2.4 Dissolution and Recrystallization Methods
			2.5 Chemical Lithiation
			2.6 Drop Casting Method
		3. The Role of Metal Nanocomposites in Li2S-based Battery
			3.1 Activation of Li2S Cathode
			3.2 Polysulfide Redox Chemistry
		4. Conclusions and Outlook
		References
	LI2S-Carbon Nanocomposites
		1. Introduction
		2. Preparation of Li2S Cathode
			2.1 Commercial Li2S Reprocessing
			2.2 Liquid Phase Synthesis
			2.3 Carbonization Reduction
			2.4 Gas–Solid Reactions
		3. Inhibiting Shuttle Effect
		4. Activation of Li2S Cathode
			4.1 Li2S Activation Mechanism
			4.2 Reduction of Li2S Activation Potential
		References
Nanostructured Hybrid Cathode Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
	Carbon-Based Nanocomposites
		1. Introduction
		2. Carbon–Sulfur Composite Cathodes
			2.1 Porous Carbon Nanostructure-Sulfur Composites Cathode
			2.2 One-Dimensional (1D) Carbon Nanostructure-Sulfur Composites Cathode
			2.3 Graphene Based Nanostructure-Sulfur Composite Cathodes
		3. Conclusions
		References
	Metal Oxides Based Nanocomposites for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
		1. Introduction
		2. Recent Advances of Li–S Batteries
		3. Principles of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
		4. Challenges of Li–S Battery Cathodes
		5. Metal Oxides Based Nanocomposites for Li–S Batteries
			5.1 MnO2
			5.2 NiFe2O4
			5.3 TiO2
			5.4 Ti4O7
			5.5 Other Oxides as Host Materials for Li–S Batteries
		6. Conclusions and Perspectives
		References
	Conducting Polymers-Based Nano Composites
		1. Introduction
		2. Conducting Polymers
			2.1 Working Mechanism of Conducting Polymers in Energy Storage Materials
			2.2 Application of Conducting Polymer in Energy Storage and Conversion
			2.3 Conducting Polymer as Binder for Electrodes
		3. Surface Modification of Active Materials
		4. Polymers as Cathodic Materials
		5. Polymer as Active Material for Li–S Batteries
		6. Conducting Polymer as Battery Electrolyte
		7. Conducting Polymer as Separator
		8. Nanostructured Conducting Polymers
		9. Nanocomposite Conducting Polymers
		10. Nanocomposite Conducting Polymers for Li–S Battery Applications
		11. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
Nanostructured Electrolyte Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
	Aqueous Electrolytes for Lithium Sulfur Batteries
		1. Introduction
		2. Moderately Solvating System (MSS)
		3. Sparingly Solvating System (PSS)
			3.1 Room-Temperature Ionic Liquid
			3.2 High-Concentration System (HCS)
		4. Abundantly Solvating Systems (ASS)
			4.1 ASS Based on Solvents with High Donation Number and/or High Dielectric Constant
			4.2 ASS Based on High Donation Number Ions
			4.3 Sulfur Reaction Mechanisms in ASS
			4.4 Challenges and Solutions for ASS
		References
	Non-aqueous Electrolytes for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
		1. Introduction
		2. Fundamental Sulfur Reaction
		3. Basic Concept of Electrolyte for Li–S Batteries
		4. Solvents
			4.1 Carbonate Solvents
			4.2 Ether Solvents
			4.3 Fluorinated Co-solvents
			4.4 Other Solvents
		5. Lithium Salts
			5.1 Lithium Nitrate
			5.2 Lithium Borates
			5.3 Lithium Halides
		6. Additives
			6.1 Additives for SEI Formation on Anode
			6.2 Additives for Stabilizing the Cathode
			6.3 Additives Related to Safety
			6.4 Other Additives
		7. Future Perspectives
		References
	Ionic Liquid-Based Electrolytes for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
		1. Introduction
		2. Classification and Physicochemical Properties of Ionic Liquids (ILS)
			2.1 Conventional ILs
			2.2 Renewable Bio-Based ILs
			2.3 Solvate (Chelate) Ionic Liquids (SILs)
			2.4 Physicochemical Properties of Ionic Liquids (ILS)
		3. Methods for Synthesizing ILs
			3.1 Alkylation
			3.2 Anion Exchange
			3.3 Solvent-Free Synthesis
			3.4 Chiral Synthesis of Ionic Liquids (CILs)
		4. Working Mechanisms of ILs in Li/S Batteries
			4.1 Influence of ILs Components on Polysulfide Solubility
			4.2 Stability of Lithium Metal Anodes in Ionic Liquid Electrolytes
		5. Advances and Limitations ILs for Li/S Batteries
			5.1 Advances of ILs for Li/S Batteries
			5.2 Limitations of ILs for Li/S Batteries
		6. Conclusions and Perspectives
		References
	Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
		1. The Argument for Better Batteries
		2. A Deep Dive in Electrolytes for LSBs
			2.1 General and Distinctive Prerequisites of Electrolytes
			2.2 Strategy for Avoiding Obstructions of Electrolytes in LSBs
		3. Classification of Polymer Electrolytes for LSBs
			3.1 Solid Polymer Electrolytes for LSBs
			3.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes for LSBs
		4. Concluding Remarks and Outlook
		Glossary
		References
	Hybrid Electrolytes for Li–S Batteries
		1. Introduction
		2. Interaction Mechanism of Electrolytes with Electrodes
		3. Electrolytes
		4. Shuttle Effect of Li–S Batteries
		5. Hybrid Electrolytes
			5.1 Classification of Hybrid Electrolyte
		6. Desired Characteristics of Hybrid Electrolytes
		7. Conclusion and Future Perspectives of Hybrid Electrolytes
		References
Nanostructured Separator and Interlayer Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
	Different Types of Separators for Lithium Sulfur Battery
		1. Introduction
		2. Anode
		3. Cathode
		4. Electrolyte
		5. Separators and Interlayers
			5.1 Modified Separators
			5.2 Carbon Materials Modified Separator
			5.3 Polymer Modified Separator
			5.4 Inorganic Substance Modified Separator
			5.5 Functional Groups Modified Separator
			5.6 Novel Battery Separators
		6. Conclusion
		References
	Functionalized Polyolefin Separators for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
		1. Introduction
		2. Desired Functionalities of Separators
		3. Polyolefin Polymers as Separators for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
			3.1 Conventional Polyolefin Separators
			3.2 Functionalized Polyolefin Separators for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
		4. Conclusion and Prospects
		References
	Carbon-Based Interlayers
		1. Introduction
		2. Graphene-Based Interlayers
			2.1 Pristine Graphene Interlayer
			2.2 Hetero Atom Doped Graphene-Based Interlayer
			2.3 Metal-Based Materials-Graphene Composite Interlayer
		3. Carbon Nanotube-Based Interlayers
			3.1 Pristine Carbon Nanotube Interlayer
			3.2 Metal-Based Material—Carbon Nanotube Composite Interlayer
			3.3 Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Composite Interlayer
			3.4 Graphene-Carbon Nanotube Composite Interlayer
		4. Carbon Nanofiber-Based Interlayers
			4.1 Pristine Carbon Nanofiber Interlayer
			4.2 Heteroatom Doped Carbon Nanofiber Interlayer
			4.3 Metal-Based Material—Carbon Nanofiber Composite Interlayer
		5. Activated Carbon-Based Interlayers
		6. Conclusion
		References
	Carbon–Metal Oxide Hybrid Nanocomposites
		1. Introduction
		2. Monometallic Oxides
		3. Binary Metal Oxides
		4. Ternary Metal Oxides
		5. Conclusion
		References
	Doped Carbon-Based Materials as Li–S Battery Separator
		1. Introduction
		2. N@C Separator Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
		3. O@C Separator Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
		4. B@C Separator Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
		5. Co@C Separator Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
		6. Other Separator Materials for Li–S Batteries
			6.1 Carbon-Based Functional Membrane Modified by Catalytic Functional Materials
			6.2 Improve the Adsorption Capacity of Carbon-Based Membrane Polysulfide Ions
			6.3 Improved Carbon-Based Membrane with Structural Design
			6.4 Modification of the Membrane with Biomass Carbon Material
			6.5 Construction of Multifunctional New Membranes
			6.6 Spatial Barrier Effect to Improve the Carbon-Based Membrane
		7. Conclusion and Prospect
		References
	Metal-Doped Carbon Based Nanostructured Separator Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
		1. Introduction
		2. Separator Modification for Enhancing Li–S Battery Performance
			2.1 Enhancing Polysulfide Anchoring and Conductivity
		3. Conclusion
		References
	Polymer Blend Separators
		1. Introduction
		2. Polymer Blend Separators
		3. Fabrication of Polymer Blend Separators
			3.1 Solution Casting Method
			3.2 Phase Inversion Method
			3.3 Electrospinning
			3.4 In-situ Polymerization Method
			3.5 UV Curing Method
		4. Functioning of Polymer Blend Separator in Lithium–Sulfur System
		5. Polymer Blend Separators in Lithium–Sulfur System
			5.1 Separator Based on PEO
			5.2 Separator Based on PAN
			5.3 Separator Based on PVDF and Its Copolymer
			5.4 Separator Based on PMMA
			5.5 Separator Based on PMIA
			5.6 Separator Based on Other Polymers
		6. Conclusion
		References
	Electrospun Nanofibers
		1. Introduction
		2. Overview of Li–S Batteries
			2.1 Working Mechanism of Li–S Batteries
			2.2 Challenges
		3. Principle and Advantages of Electrospun Separators in Li–S Batteries
			3.1 Principle of Electrospinning
			3.2 Advantages of Electrospun Separators in Li–S Batteries
		4. Applications of Electrospun Separators in Li–S Batteries
			4.1 Pristine Polymers
			4.2 Polymer Composites
			4.3 Multiple-Layered Electrospun Nanofibers
		5. Conclusions and Perspectives
		References
Nanostructured Anode Materials for Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
	Stabilized Lithium Metal Nanocomposite Anode for High-Performance Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
		1. Introduction
		2. Challenges of Li Metal Anode in Li–S Batteries
			2.1 High Reactivity and Infinite Volume Changes
			2.2 Instability of SEI
			2.3 Uncontrollable Dendrite Growth
			2.4 Reaction with Soluble Polysulfide
		3. Interface Engineering of Li Anode
		4. Li-Based Alloy Anodes
		5. Li Metal Powder Anodes
		6. Nanocarbon Host Materials
		7. Lithiophilic Sites Inducing Uniform Li Deposition
		8. Conclusion and Outlooks
		References
	Carbon–Li Nanocomposites as Anode for Lithium–Sulfur Battery
		1. Introduction
		2. Mechanism of Charge/Discharge of Li–S Battery
		3. Carbon-Based Anode for Li–S Battery
		4. Biomass-Derived Carbon Anode for Li–S Battery
		5. Conclusion
		References
	Silicon Based Materials
		1. Introduction
		2. Electrode Performances of Nanostructured Si
		3. Effect of Buffer Matrix Formation on Electrode Performance
		4. Binder with Self-Healing Ability Facilitates the Expansion—Shrinkage of Si Particle
		5. Application of Si Anode in Li-Ion and Li–S Batteries
		6. Summary and Outlook
		References
	Silicon–Carbon–Lithium Hybrid Nanocomposites
		1. Introduction
		2. Methodologies
			2.1 Prelithiation Strategies
			2.2 Electrochemical Method
			2.3 Chemical Method
		3. Structures and Methodologies for Li–Si–C Hybrid Composites
			3.1 Nanocomposite
			3.2 Layer-by-Layer Structure
			3.3 Freestanding Electrode
		4. Conclusions and Future Research
		References
Future Outlooks and Challenges
	Lithium–Sulfur Batteries: From Lab to Industry and Safety
		1. Introduction
			1.1 Intrinsic Challenges of Li–S Batteries
			1.2 Previous Solutions and Practical Limits of Li–S Batteries
		2. Current Research Viewpoint for Practical Use of Li–S Batteries
		3. Scalability of Electrode
			3.1 Fabrication of a Pouch Cell Assembly
			3.2 Novel Large-Scale Process for Electrode Materials
			3.3 Future Prospects for Scalable Battery Technology
		4. Long-Term Cycle Life of Li–S
		5. Li–S Battery Safety
		6. Summary and Outlook
		References
	Future Market and Challenges of Lithium/Sulfur Batteries
		1. Introduction
		2. Market Analysis of Li–S Batteries
			2.1 Current Market Landscape
			2.2 Growth Potential and Emerging Applications
			2.3 Market Challenges and Opportunities
			2.4 Challenges in Li–S Battery Technology
		3. Technical Challenges in Li–S Battery Technology
			3.1 Sulfur Cathode Design and Optimization
			3.2 Lithium Anode Compatibility
			3.3 Electrolyte Selection and Stability
			3.4 Capacity Degradation and Cycle Life
			3.5 Safety Concerns and Mitigation
			3.6 Regarding Safety Concerns and Mitigation [7, 21–23]
		4. Commercial Challenges in Li–S Battery Technology
			4.1 Manufacturing Scalability and Cost Reduction
			4.2 Supply Chain and Raw Material Considerations
			4.3 Regulatory and Standards Compliance
			4.4 Public Perception and Acceptance
		5. Research and Development Efforts
			5.1 Advances in Cathode and Anode Materials
			5.2 Electrolyte and Separator Innovations
			5.3 Cell Design and Integration
		6. Future Outlook and Investment Opportunities
			6.1 Key Market Players and Competitive Landscape
		7. Conclusion
			7.1 Recommendations for Future Research
			7.2 Current Research and Solutions
		References
	Life Cycle Analysis of Lithium Sulfur Batteries
		1. Introduction
			1.1 Significance of Life Cycle Analysis
		2. Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) Methodology
			2.1 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) Analysis
			2.2 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) Analysis
			2.3 Interpretation and Reporting of LCA Results
		3. Data Collection and Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
			3.1 Selection of Functional Unit
			3.2 Data Collection Methods and Sources
		4. LCI Analysis of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
		5. LCIA Analysis of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
			5.1 LCIA Analysis of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries in Comparison with Other Battery Technologies
		6. Recycling of Li–S Batteries
			6.1 Environmentally Clean Technology
		7. Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References