Nanopharmaceuticals. Principles and Applications Volume 1

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1: Liposomes vs Phytosomes: Principles, Methodologies, and Therapeutic Applications with Emphasis on CNS Disorders
	1.1 Introduction: General Concepts
	1.2 Liposome: Background
		1.2.1 Liposome Discovery and Description
		1.2.2 Classification of Liposomes
		1.2.3 Composition of Liposomes
			Types of Phospholipids
			Description of Specific Phospholipids
			Sterols (Cholesterol)
	1.3 Preparation Methods for Liposomes
		1.3.1 Hydration (by Passive Loading)
			Mechanical Methods
			Methods Based on Replacement of Organic Solvent by Aqueous Media
			Methods Based on Detergent Removal
			Methods Based on Size Transformation and Fusion
		1.3.2 Sizing Stage
		1.3.3 Removal of Non-encapsulated Material
	1.4 Liposomes: Strategies and Applications
		1.4.1 Formulation Strategies
		1.4.2 Therapeutic and Clinical Applications
	1.5 Phytosome: Background
		1.5.1 Phytosome: Background, Discovery, and Description
		1.5.2 Properties and Characterization of Phytosomes
	1.6 Preparation Methods for Phytosomes
	1.7 Therapeutic Applications of Phytosomes
		1.7.1 Neutraceutical, Health Food, and Cosmeceutical Applications
		1.7.2 Clinical Applications
	1.8 Differences Between Liposomes and Phytosomes
	1.9 Advantages
	1.10 CNS-Based Therapies: Challenges and Interventions
		1.10.1 Drug Delivery to the Brain
			General Concepts
			Physical Barriers in Brain Targeting
			Alteration of BBB in Brain Diseases
			Strategies Useful for Drug Delivery to the Brain
			Areas of Concern in Brain-Targeted Delivery Systems
		1.10.2 Liposomal Interventions Implied in CNS Therapies
		1.10.3 Phytosome Strategies for Disorders of the Brain and CNS
	1.11 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 2: Applications of Nanopharmaceuticals in Delivery and Targeting
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Goals of Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems
	2.3 Classification of Nanoparticles
		2.3.1 Classification of Pharmaceutical Nanoparticles
			Nanosized API Particles Instead
				API Nanonization Techniques
					Top-Down Techniques
						Media Milling Techniques
						High-Pressure Homogenization (HPH)
					Bottom-up Techniques
			Nanoparticles/Nanosuspensions: Stability Issues
			Polymeric Nanoparticles
				Hydrophilic Polymeric Nanoparticles (Hydrogel Nanoparticles)
				Biodegradable Polymeric Nanoparticles
					Starch Nanoparticles
					Chitosan Nanoparticles
						Manufacturing Techniques
					Polylactic Acid (PLA) and Polylactic-co-glycolic Acid (PLGA) Nanoparticles
						Manufacturing Techniques
					Poly-є-caprolactone (PCL) Nanoparticles
						Manufacturing Techniques
				Hydrophobic Nanoparticles
					Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN)
						Manufacturing Techniques
					Silica Nanoparticles
					Gold Nanoparticles
	2.4 Applications of Nanoparticles
		2.4.1 Enhanced Solubility and Dissolution Rate
			API Nanocrystals
			API Nanosuspensions
		2.4.2 Controlled Drug Release Rates
			Reducing Dose Frequency and Toxic Reactions
			Targeted Drug Delivery Systems
			Cellular Uptake Induction
	2.5 Nanoparticle Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Applications: Prospective Clinical Challenges
		2.5.1 Biological Challenges
		2.5.2 Technological Challenges
		2.5.3 Study-Design Challenges
	2.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3: Applications of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in the Magnetic Resonance Imaging for the Cancer Diagnosis
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 MRI as Diagnostic Technique
	3.3 Design Considerations of IONPS as Contrast Agents for Tumor Targeting
		3.3.1 Surface Modification of IONPs Through Organic and Inorganic Materials
	3.4 Role of IONPs in Cancer Detection as Contrast Agents
	3.5 IONPs-Mediated MRI Diagnosis of Different Cancer Types
		3.5.1 Brain Cancer Detection
		3.5.2 Breast Cancer Detection
		3.5.3 Gastric Cancer Detection
		3.5.4 Ovarian Cancer Detection
		3.5.5 Liver Cancer Detection
		3.5.6 Colorectal Cancer Detection
		3.5.7 Lung Cancer Detection
		3.5.8 Pancreatic Cancer Detection
	3.6 Conclusion and Perspective with Future Outlook
	References
Chapter 4: DNA-Based Nanopharmaceuticals
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 DNA Nanostructures
		4.2.1 DNA–Polymer Assembly
			Bioconjugates
			Click Conjugation
			DNA Block Copolymer (DNABCp)
	4.3 DNA Origami
		4.3.1 Smart Structures by DNA Origami Approach
			DNA Nanotubes
			DNA Tetrahedron
			DNA Nanoflowers
			DNA Icosahedra
			DNA Origami Box
			DNA Octahedra
			DNA Origami Dendrimers
			Large DNA Origami
		4.3.2 DNA Origami as Template for Biomolecule Delivery
		4.3.3 Structural Modifications in DNA Origami Structures
		4.3.4 Aptamer-Conjugated DNA Origami Structures
		4.3.5 Computational Sequence Design
	4.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5: An Overview on Ionic Liquids: A New Frontier for Nanopharmaceuticals
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Ionic Liquids
		5.2.1 Synthesis and Purification
		5.2.2 Classification of Ionic Liquids
		5.2.3 Toxicity for Humans and the Environment
		5.2.4 Applicability in Drug Delivery Systems
	5.3 Nanopharmaceuticals and Ionic Liquids
		5.3.1 Applications of Nanoparticles and Ionic Liquid Combined Systems
		5.3.2 Regulatory Gaps
	5.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 6: Therapeutic Implications of Nanopharmaceuticals in Skin Delivery
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 Skin Delivery
	6.2 Nanotechnology
	6.3 Nanopharmaceuticals
		6.3.1 Conventional Therapeutics Versus Nanopharmaceuticals for Skin Application
		6.3.2 Physicochemical Characteristics of Nanocarriers and Their Role
		6.3.3 Influence of Nanoparticles in the Skin
		6.3.4 Type of Nanopharmaceuticals and Nanocarriers
			Lipidic-Based Nanocarriers
				Liposomes
				Ethosomes
				Transfersomes
				Transethosomes
				Niosomes
				Penetration Enhancer-Containing Vesicles
				Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers
					Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
					Nanostructured Lipid Carriers
			Polymeric-Based Nanoparticles
			Metallic-Based Nanoformulations
				Gold Nanoparticles
				Silver Nanoparticles
			Magnetic-Based Nanoparticles
			Other Surfactant-Based Nanoformulations
				Micelles
				Emulsions
				Microemulsions
				Nanoemulsions
				Hydrogels
				Nanogels
			Inorganic and Organic Nanoparticles
				Carbon Nanotubes
				Silica Nanoparticles
				Graphenes
		6.3.5 Safety Issues of Nanomedicine
		6.3.6 Toxicity
		6.3.7 Regulatory Framework for Nanopharmaceuticals
	6.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7: Biomimetic and Synthetic Gels for Nanopharmaceutical Applications
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Classification of Gels
	7.3 General Properties of Gels
		7.3.1 Green Synthesis of Nanogels
		7.3.2 Swelling Behaviors
		7.3.3 Responsive Behaviors
			pH-Responsive Gels
			Thermoresponsive Gels
			Affinity Responsive Gels
			Electro-Responsive Gels
			Light-Responsive Gels
		7.3.4 Mechanical Behaviors
	7.4 Applications of Gels
		7.4.1 Therapeutic Agent Carrier
			Drug Delivery
			Protein Delivery
			Delivery of Genetic Materials
		7.4.2 Diagnostic and Imaging
		7.4.3 Biosensors
	7.5 Challenges in the Applications
	7.6 Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 8: On-Chip Drug Screening Technologies for Nanopharmaceutical and Nanomedicine Applications
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Microfabrication of Microfluidics
		8.2.1 Photolithography and Soft Lithography
		8.2.2 Microcontact Printing
		8.2.3 Replica Molding
		8.2.4 Mold Fabrication
		8.2.5 Etching
		8.2.6 Rapid Prototyping
		8.2.7 Substrate Bonding
	8.3 Applications of Microfluidics for Drug Screening
		8.3.1 Cell-Based Drug Screening
			Screening Techniques for Cell-Based Interactions
			Organ-on-a-Chip Drug Screening Technologies
				Kidney-on-a-Chip
				Heart-on-a-Chip
				Liver-on-a-Chip
	8.4 Commercialization and Marketing
	8.5 Challenges of on-Chip Technologies for Nanomedicine and Nanopharmaceutical Applications
	8.6 Future Perspective and Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9: Synthesis of Some Bioactive Nanomaterials and Applications of Various Nanoconjugates for Targeted Therapeutic Applications
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Synthesis of Biologically Relevant Nanoparticles
		9.2.1 Carbon Materials
		9.2.2 Noble Metals and Metal Oxides
		9.2.3 Semiconductor Nanocrystals
	9.3 Surface Functionalization Strategy
		9.3.1 Non-covalent Surfactant Replacement
		9.3.2 Covalent Attachment
	9.4 Targeting Capabilities
		9.4.1 Cellular Target
		9.4.2 Subcellular Target
	9.5 Therapeutic Evaluation
		9.5.1 Nanoparticles as an Imaging Tool
	9.6 Conclusion
	References
Index