Nanomedicine in Treatment of Diseases (Learning Materials in Biosciences)

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
Abbreviations
Part I: Introduction to Nanomedicine
	1: Nanomedicine: Present Perspectives and Future Challenges
		1.1	 Introduction
		1.2	 Chronology of Nanomaterial to Nanomedicine
			1.2.1	 Early Records
			1.2.2	 Advances in Microscopy
			1.2.3	 Employment of Nanomaterial in Medicine
		1.3	 Nanomaterial Composition and Morphology
		1.4	 Lipid-based Nanoparticles
			1.4.1	 Liposomes
			1.4.2	 Lipodiscs
		1.5	 Polymer-based Nanoparticles
			1.5.1	 Natural Polymer-based Nanoparticles
				1.5.1.1	 Dextran Nanoparticles
				1.5.1.2	 Chitosan Polymers
				1.5.1.3	 Alginate Nanoparticles
				1.5.1.4	 Hyaluronic Acid Nanoparticles
			1.5.2	 Synthetic Polymer-based Nanoparticles
				1.5.2.1	 Acrylic Polymer Nanoparticles
		1.6	 Surface Morphology of Nanoparticles
		1.7	 Lab-on-a-Chip
			1.7.1	 Organ-on-a-Chip
			1.7.2	 Brain-on-a-Chip
			1.7.3	 Gut-on-a-Chip
			1.7.4	 Lung-on-a-Chip
			1.7.5	 Human-on-a-Chip
			1.7.6	 Replacing Animal Testing
		1.8	 Nanobots
			1.8.1	 Nucleic Acid Robots
			1.8.2	 Nanolithography Chips
			1.8.3	 Biohybrid Systems
			1.8.4	 Bacteria-Based Chips
		1.9	 Intricate Nanocarriers
		1.10	 Drug Delivery
		1.11	 Gene Delivery
		1.12	 Peptide Delivery
		1.13	 Stimuli-Responsive Delivery Systems
		1.14	 Photodynamic Therapy
		1.15	 Acoustically Sensitive Nanocarriers
		1.16	 pH-Sensitive Nanomaterial
		1.17	 Disease Prophylaxis
		1.18	 Covid-19 Vaccine: A Gift of Nanomedicine
		1.19	 Tissue Engineering, Regeneration, and Repair
			1.19.1	 Bone Tissue Engineering
			1.19.2	 Cornea Tissue Engineering
			1.19.3	 Tissue Regeneration in Nervous System
			1.19.4	 Cell Repair
		1.20	 Precision Medicine
			1.20.1	 Nanosensors; Diagnostic Nanomaterials
		1.21	 Assembling of Nanosensors
			1.21.1	 Descending Order
			1.21.2	 Lithography
			1.21.3	 Chemical Etching
			1.21.4	 Ascending Order
			1.21.5	 Self-Assembly
		1.22	 Imaging Quantum Dots
			1.22.1	 Theranostics with Nanomaterial
			1.22.2	 Administration, Absorption, and Bioavailability of Nanomedicine
		1.23	 Challenges and Perspectives
		References
			Further Reading
	2: Advantages of Nanomedicine Over Conventional Therapeutics
		2.1	 Understanding Conventional Medicine and Associated Problems
		2.2	 What Are Nanocarriers?
		2.3	 Characteristics of an Ideal Nanocarrier for Drug Delivery
		2.4	 Types of Nanocarriers
			2.4.1	 Nanocarriers Based on Polymers
			2.4.2	 Polymer-Drug Conjugates
			2.4.3	 Polymeric Micelles
			2.4.4	 Dendrimers
		2.5	 Advantages of Nanomedicine Over Conventional Therapeutics
		2.6	 Reduced Toxicity of Drugs
		2.7	 Overcoming Resistance in Cancer Cells
		2.8	 Nanotechnology in Immunotherapy
		2.9	 Nanomedicines for Better Pharmacokinetic Profile
		2.10	 Topical Application of Nanoparticles
		2.11	 Nanocarriers in Cancer Chemotherapy
		2.12	 Nanomedicines for Delivery of Nucleic Acids
		2.13	 Nanomedicine in Cancer: Advantages Over Traditional Molecular Therapy
		2.14	 Targets for Anticancer Drug Delivery
		2.15	 Barriers in Tumor-Targeted Drug Delivery
		2.16	 Nanocarriers for Overcoming Chemotherapeutic Toxicity
		2.17	 Development of Resistance to Conventional Chemotherapeutics
		2.18	 Overcoming Doxorubicin Resistance by Nanocarriers
		2.19	 Examples of Nanocarriers for Anticancer Drug Delivery
			2.19.1	 Liposomes
			2.19.2	 Polymer-Drug Conjugates
			2.19.3	 Dendrimers
			2.19.4	 Lipid Nanocarriers
		2.20	 Technical Considerations for Commercially Viable Lipid Nanocarriers
		2.21	 Advantages of Lipid Nanomedicine
		2.22	 Improvement of Poor Solubility
		2.23	 Overcoming Biological Barriers
		2.24	 Improvement in Dosing Regimen
		2.25	 Herbal Medicines
		2.26	 Nanotechnology Approaches Inspired from Nature: Plant-Derived Nanovesicle
		2.27	 Nanoencapsulation of Herbal Drugs
		2.28	 Nanoadsorption of Herbal Drugs
		2.29	 Issue of Toxicity in Nanomedicine
		2.30	 Characteristics of Nanoparticles that Affect Their Toxicity
			2.30.1	 Size and Surface Area of Particle
			2.30.2	 Shape
			2.30.3	 Aspect Ratio
			2.30.4	 Crystallinity
			2.30.5	 Surface Coating
			2.30.6	 Dissolution
			2.30.7	 Agglomeration
			2.30.8	 Ethical Issues in Nanomedicine
			2.30.9	 Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine
		2.31	 Future Prospects and Outlook
		References
Part II: Nanomedicine in Treatment of Diseases
	3: Nanomedicines for the Treatment of Bacterial Diseases
		3.1	 Introduction
		3.2	 History of Antibiotics
		3.3	 Limitations of Antibiotics
		3.4	 Antibiotic Resistance Pattern in Bacteria
		3.5	 Therapeutic Efficacy of Nanoparticles
		3.6	 Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery System
		3.7	 Treatment of Targeted Bacterial Killings
		3.8	 Future Outcomes Regarding the Nanomedicine as Antibacterial
		References
			Further Reading
			Further related reading material can be found from the below mentioned sites.
	4: Nanomedicine in the Treatment of Viral Diseases
		4.1	 Introduction
		4.2	 Virology
		4.3	 Structure of Viruses
		4.4	 Pathogenesis
		4.5	 Hinderances in Virus Entry
		4.6	 Prospects of Treatment of the Viral Infections
		4.7	 Challenges of Current Antiviral Therapy
		4.8	 Nanodelivery Systems
			4.8.1	 Lipid-Based Nano Drug Delivery system
				4.8.1.1	 Liposomes
				4.8.1.2	 Niosomes
				4.8.1.3	 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
				4.8.1.4	 Nanoemulsions
				4.8.1.5	 Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems
			4.8.2	 Polymer-Based Systems
				4.8.2.1	 Polymeric Nanoparticles
				4.8.2.2	 Polymeric Micelles
				4.8.2.3	 Polymer-Drug Conjugates
				4.8.2.4	 Hydrogel-Based Nanocarriers
			4.8.3	 Dendrimers
			4.8.4	 Cyclodextrin Derivatives
			4.8.5	 Nanosuspensions
			4.8.6	 Stimuli-Responsive Nano Drug Delivery System
			4.8.7	 Carbon-Based Polymers
				4.8.7.1	 Grapheme Oxide
				4.8.7.2	 Carbon Dots
				4.8.7.3	 Fullerenes
			4.8.8	 Gold Nanoparticles
			4.8.9	 Silver Nanoparticles
			4.8.10	 Nanocrystals
			4.8.11	 Nanovaccines
		4.9	 Toxic Effects of Nano Drug Delivery System
		4.10	 Obstacles and Challenges in the Practical Application of Nanomedicine
		4.11	 Nanotechnology-Based Approaches to Overcome COVID-19 Pandemic
		References
			Further Reading
	5: Nanomedicines in the Treatment of Nervous System Disorders
		5.1	 Introduction
		5.2	 Neurodegenerative Disease
		5.3	 Neuropsychiatric Disorders
		5.4	 Challenges for the Treatment of Brain Disorders
		5.5	 Problems to Conventional CNS Therapies
			5.5.1	 Brain Tumors
			5.5.2	 Alzheimer Disease (AD)
			5.5.3	 Parkinson’s Disease (PD)
			5.5.4	 Epilepsy
			5.5.5	 Mood Disorders and Schizophrenia
		5.6	 Transport Mechanisms for Drug Delivery to the CNS
			5.6.1	 Paracellular Transport
			5.6.2	 The Transcellular Pathway for BBB/BBTB Crossover
			5.6.3	 Factors to Consider for the Transcellular Route
		5.7	 Nanomedicine in Brain Cancer/Brain Tumors
		5.8	 Core Signaling Pathways
			5.8.1	 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Signaling
			5.8.2	 Phosphoinositide 3-Kinases (PI3K) Signaling
			5.8.3	 Cyclic Adenosine 3′, 5′-Monophosphate (cAMP) Signaling
			5.8.4	 PI3K and MAPK Pathway Targeting
			5.8.5	 Targeting the cAMP Pathway
		5.9	 Functionalization of Nanocarriers for Active Brain Targeting
		5.10	 Alzheimer’s Disease
			5.10.1	 Nanotechnological Strategies for Alzheimer’s Disease
			5.10.2	 Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs)
			5.10.3	 Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Alzheimer’s Disease
			5.10.4	 Polymeric-Based Nanoparticles for Alzheimer’s Disease
			5.10.5	 Metal-Based Nanoparticles for Alzheimer’s Disease
			5.10.6	 Targeting Amyloid Beta Aggregates
			5.10.7	 Nanomedicine for Clearance of Tau Aggregates
			5.10.8	 Modulation of Cholinergic System
		5.11	 Parkinson’s Disease
			5.11.1	 Inorganic Nanomaterials
				5.11.1.1	 Metal Nanoparticles
				5.11.1.2	 Quantum Dots
				5.11.1.3	 Cerium Oxide
			5.11.2	 Organic Nanoparticles
				5.11.2.1	 Polymeric Nanoparticles
				5.11.2.2	 Solid Nanoparticles
				5.11.2.3	 Gene Therapy in PD
				5.11.2.4	 Dopamine Modulation
		5.12	 Nanomaterials for Parkinson Disease Diagnosis
		5.13	 Epilepsy
			5.13.1	 Intranasal Delivery of Antiepileptic Drug (AED)-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles
			5.13.2	 Potential Nanotherapies for Epilepsy
		5.14	 Schizophrenia
			5.14.1	 Polymeric Nanoparticles
			5.14.2	 Solid Lipid Nanocarriers
			5.14.3	 Lithium Nanoparticles
			5.14.4	 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers
			5.14.5	 Liposomes
			5.14.6	 Polymeric Micelles
		5.15	 Challenges and Perspectives
		5.16	 Conclusion
		References
			Further Reading
	6: Nanomedicines in Treatment of Cancer
		6.1	 Introduction
		6.2	 Pharmacology Aspects of Nanomedicines in Cancer
			6.2.1	 Pharmacokinetics of Nanomedicine
			6.2.2	 Mechanism of Action of Nanomedicines for Treating Cancer
		6.3	 Brief Overview of Cancer Pathophysiology & Role of Nanomedicines in Their Treatment
			6.3.1	 Cancer Types
			6.3.2	 Pathophysiology of Cancer
		6.4	 Role of Nanomedicines in Treatment of Different Cancers
			6.4.1	 Nanomedicines in Treatment of Breast Cancer
			6.4.2	 Nanomedicines in Treatment of HIV-Related Kaposi Sarcoma
			6.4.3	 Nanomedicines in Treatment of Lung Cancer
			6.4.4	 Nanomedicines in Treatment of Lymphomatous Meningitis
			6.4.5	 Nanomedicines in Hepatocellular Carcinoma
			6.4.6	 Nanomedicines in Treatment of Bladder Cancer
			6.4.7	 Nanomedicines in Treatment of Ovarian Cancer
			6.4.8	 Nanomedicines in Treatment of Prostate Cancer
		6.5	 Drug Resistance in Cancer and Nanomedicines
			6.5.1	 Multidrug Resistance
			6.5.2	 Intrinsic and Acquired Mutation
			6.5.3	 The Contribution of Microenvironment in Multidrug Resistance
		6.6	 Theranostic Nanomedicines Used in Cancer
		6.7	 Conclusion
		References
	7: Nanomedicine in the Treatment of Metabolic Diseases
		7.1	 Nanomedicine
		7.2	 Metabolic Diseases
		7.3	 Obesity
			7.3.1	 Pathophysiology of Obesity
			7.3.2	 Nanotherapeutics-Based Pharmacotherapy of Obesity
			7.3.3	 Synthetic Anti-obesity Drugs Modified with Nanotechnology
			7.3.4	 Herbal Nanomedicine for Obesity Treatment
		7.4	 Nanomedicine in Hyperlipidemias
			7.4.1	 Nanomedicine in Hyperlipidemias
		7.5	 Nanomedicine in Diabetes
			7.5.1	 Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
			7.5.2	 Nanotechnology for the Development of Oral Insulin
			7.5.3	 Natural Nanomaterials for Insulin Delivery
			7.5.4	 Synthetic Nanomaterials for Insulin Encapsulation
			7.5.5	 Lipid Nanocarriers for Oral Insulin Delivery
			7.5.6	 Inorganic Nanocarriers for Oral Insulin Delivery
			7.5.7	 Insulin Oral Nanoformulations in Clinical Trials
			7.5.8	 Insulin Delivery Through Transdermal Route
			7.5.9	 Intranasal Delivery of Insulin
		7.6	 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
			7.6.1	 Antidiabetic Drugs Modified with Nanotechnology
			7.6.2	 Insulin Secretagogues Modified by Nanotechnology
			7.6.3	 Plant-Based Nanoformulations Investigated in Type 2 Diabetes
		7.7	 Nanomedicine in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)
			7.7.1	 Pathophysiology of NAFLD
			7.7.2	 Nanomedicine in NAFLD
		7.8	 Endothelial Dysfunctions
			7.8.1	 Nanomedicine in Endothelial Dysfunctions
		References
	8: Nanomedicines in the Treatment of Fungal Diseases
		8.1	 Introduction
		8.2	 Fungal Infections
		8.3	 Nanomaterials for Fungal Infections
		8.4	 Nanotechnology in the Fungal Infection Treatment
			8.4.1	 Aspergillosis
			8.4.2	 Candidiasis
			8.4.3	 Cryptococcosis
			8.4.4	 Histoplasmosis
			8.4.5	 Coccidioidomycosis
			8.4.6	 PCM
		References
			Further Reading
	9: Nanomedicines in the Treatment of Skin Diseases
		9.1	 Nanodermatology
		9.2	 Application of Nanomedicine for Dermal Drug Delivery in Various Autoimmune Diseases
		9.3	 Application of Nanomedicine in Wound Healing and Burn
		9.4	 Inorganic Nanoparticles
		9.5	 Lipid and Liposome Nanoparticles
		9.6	 Nanohydrogels
		9.7	 Polymer Nanofibers
		9.8	 Application of Nanomedicine in Esthetic Dermatology
			9.8.1	 Emollients
			9.8.2	 Sunscreens
			9.8.3	 Cosmetics
		9.9	 Applications of Nanomedicine in Skin Cancer
			9.9.1	 Management of Melanoma
			9.9.2	 Topical Application of Nanomedicine as Vaccines
		9.10	 Application of Nanomedicine in Acne Treatment
			9.10.1	 Liposomes
			9.10.2	 Solid Lipid Nanoparticle (SLN)
			9.10.3	 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC)
			9.10.4	 Nanoemulsion
		9.11	 Application of Nanomedicine as Antiseptics
		9.12	 Application of Nanomedicine in Sebaceous Gland Diseases
		9.13	 Application of Nanomedicine in Inflammatory Skin Diseases
		9.14	 Application of Nanomedicine in Hair Diseases
		9.15	 Application of Nanomedicine in Lasers
		9.16	 Application of Nanomedicine for Diagnostic Uses
		9.17	 Application of Herbal/Plant-Based Nanomedicine in Various Skin Disorders
		References
			Further Reading
	10: Nanomedicines in the Treatment of Gastrointestinal Disorders
		10.1	 Introduction
		10.2	 Nanomedicine in Gastrointestinal Tract
		10.3	 Characteristics of Nanomaterial for Gastroenterology
			10.3.1	 Size
			10.3.2	 Surface Properties
			10.3.3	 Large Surface Area to Volume Ratio
			10.3.4	 Nanomaterial’s Carrier
		10.4	 Strategies for Delivery of Nanoparticles in the Digestive Disorders
			10.4.1	 Time-Dependent Strategy
			10.4.2	 pH-Dependent Strategy
			10.4.3	 Pressure-Dependent Strategy
			10.4.4	 Enzyme-Based Strategy
		10.5	 Applications of Nanomaterials in Gastroenterology
			10.5.1	 Nanomaterials as Theragnostic Agents
			10.5.2	 Tissue Engineering
			10.5.3	 Nanomaterials in Imaging
		10.6	 Nanomaterials in Gastrointestinal Diseases
			10.6.1	 Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)
			10.6.2	 Gastric Cancer/Tumors
			10.6.3	 Colorectal Cancer
			10.6.4	 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
		10.7	 Conclusions
		References
			Further Reading
	11: Nanomedicines in Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases
		11.1	 Introduction
		11.2	 Brief Overview of Various Cardiovascular Diseases and Their Pathogenesis
			11.2.1	 Stroke
			11.2.2	 Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)
			11.2.3	 Angina
			11.2.4	 Peripheral Arterial Disease
			11.2.5	 Deep Vein Thrombosis
			11.2.6	 Aortic Disease
		11.3	 Nanomedicines in Cardiovascular Diseases
			11.3.1	 Nanomedicine in Myocardial Infarction
			11.3.2	 Nanomedicine in Angina Pectoris
			11.3.3	 Nanomedicine as Antithrombotic
			11.3.4	 Nanomedicine in Myocarditis
			11.3.5	 Nanomedicine in Atherosclerosis
			11.3.6	 Nanomedicine in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
			11.3.7	 Nanomedicine in Hypertension
			11.3.8	 Nanomedicine in Stroke
			11.3.9	 Nanomedicine in Hyperlipidemia
		11.4	 Progress in Nanomedicines for CVS
		11.5	 Theranostic Nanomedicine
		11.6	 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Current Status of Nanomedicine in Clinical Applications
	12: Current Status of Nanomedicines in Clinical Practice
		12.1	 Nanotechnology and Drug Delivery Based on Natural Products
		12.2	 FDA-Approved Nanomedicine Products
			12.2.1	 Drug Development Phase’s Overview
			12.2.2	 FDA-Approved Medicine for Different Diseases
				12.2.2.1	 Cancer
				12.2.2.2	 Hepatitis
				12.2.2.3	 Fungal Infections
				12.2.2.4	 Iron-Deficiency Anemia
				12.2.2.5	 Joint Diseases
		12.3	 Nanomedicines: Challenges and Advancements
		12.4	 Conclusion
		References
			Further Reading
Index