Nanofabrication: Principles, Capabilities and Limits

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
	1.1 What Is Nanofabrication?
	1.2 Classification of Nanofabrication
	1.3 Purpose of the Book
Chapter 2: Optical Lithography
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Principle of Optical Projection Lithography
	2.3 Basics of Photoresists
		2.3.1 Process of Optical Lithography
		2.3.2 Characteristics of Photoresists
	2.4 Optical Lithography at Shorter Wavelengths
		2.4.1 Deep UV
		2.4.2 Extreme UV
			2.4.2.1 EUV Source
			2.4.2.2 EUV Optics
			2.4.2.3 EUV Mask
			2.4.2.4 EUV Resists
		2.4.3 X-Ray
	2.5 Optical Lithography at High NA
	2.6 Immersion Lithography
	2.7 Optical Lithography at Low k1 Factor
		2.7.1 Off-Axis Illumination (OAI)
		2.7.2 Phase-Shifting Mask (PSM)
		2.7.3 Optical Proximity Correction (OPC)
		2.7.4 Photoresists
			2.7.4.1 Sensitivity
			2.7.4.2 Contrast
			2.7.4.3 Line Edge/Linewidth Roughness (LER/LWR)
		2.7.5 Multi-patterning
		2.7.6 Design-Technology Co-optimization (DTCO)
	2.8 Near-Field Optical Lithography
	2.9 Talbot Optical Lithography
	2.10 Interferometric Optical Lithography
	2.11 Maskless Optical Lithography
	2.12 Two-Photon Polymerization Lithography
	References
Chapter 3: Electron Beam Lithography
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Principle of Electron Optics
		3.2.1 Electron Lens
		3.2.2 Electron Source
		3.2.3 Aberrations
	3.3 Electron Beam Lithography Systems
		3.3.1 Basic Configuration
		3.3.2 Key Specifications
		3.3.3 Vector and Raster Scanning
		3.3.4 Pattern Fragmentation
		3.3.5 Commercial E-Beam Lithography Systems
	3.4 Scattering and Proximity Effect
		3.4.1 Electron Scattering
		3.4.2 Proximity Effect and Correction
		3.4.3 Effect of Secondary Electrons
		3.4.4 Low Energy E-Beam Lithography
	3.5 Resist Materials and Processes
		3.5.1 Sensitivity
		3.5.2 Contrast
		3.5.3 Resolution Enhancement Processes
	3.6 Ultimate Resolution of E-Beam Lithography
	3.7 High-Throughput E-Beam Lithography
		3.7.1 Variable Shaped Beam Lithography
		3.7.2 Multi-E-Beam Lithography
	References
Chapter 4: Nanofabrication by Focused Ion Beam
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Ion Sources
		4.2.1 Liquid Metal Ion Source
		4.2.2 Plasma Ion Source
		4.2.3 Gas Field Ion Source
	4.3 Focused Ion Beam Systems
	4.4 Ion Scattering in Solid Materials
	4.5 Ion Sputtering and Deposition
		4.5.1 Ion Sputtering
		4.5.2 Ion Beam Assisted Deposition
	4.6 Focused Ion Beam Direct Nanofabrication
		4.6.1 Inspecting and Editing Integrated Circuits
		4.6.2 Repairing Defects of Optical Masks
		4.6.3 Preparing TEM/STEM Samples
		4.6.4 Nanostructuring for Scientific Research
	4.7 Focused Ion Beam Lithography
	References
Chapter 5: Tip-Based Nanofabrication
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Principles of Scanning Probe Microscopes
	5.3 Exposure of Resists
		5.3.1 Exposure by Electrons
		5.3.2 Exposure by Photons
		5.3.3 Exposure by Heat
	5.4 Surface Modification
		5.4.1 Hydrogen Depassivation
		5.4.2 Field-Induced Oxidation
		5.4.3 Friction-Induced Modification
		5.4.4 Heat-Induced Modification
	5.5 Material Deposition
		5.5.1 Dip-Pen Deposition
		5.5.2 Field-Induced Deposition
	5.6 High-Throughput Scanning Probe Lithography
		5.6.1 High-Speed Scanning
		5.6.2 Massively Parallel Tip Array
	References
Chapter 6: Nanoimprint Lithography
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Thermal Nanoimprint
		6.2.1 Nanoimprint Stamps
		6.2.2 Nanoimprint Polymers
		6.2.3 Demolding
		6.2.4 Alignment
	6.3 Room Temperature Nanoimprint
	6.4 UV Cured Nanoimprint
		6.4.1 Transparent Stamps
		6.4.2 UV-Curable Polymers
		6.4.3 Jet and Flash Imprint Lithography (J-FIL)
		6.4.4 Substrate Conformal Imprint Lithography (SCIL)
		6.4.5 Alignment Through Transparent Stamps
	6.5 Reverse Nanoimprint
	6.6 Soft Lithography
		6.6.1 Soft Stamps
		6.6.2 Microcontact Printing
		6.6.3 Replication by Capillary Force
	6.7 Roll-to-Roll Continuous Nanoimprint
	References
Chapter 7: Nanoscale Pattern Transfer by Etching
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Wet Chemical Etching
		7.2.1 Wet Isotropic Etching
		7.2.2 Wet Anisotropic Etching
		7.2.3 Metal Assisted Anisotropic Etching
	7.3 Reactive Ion Etching (RIE)
		7.3.1 Principle of RIE
		7.3.2 Process Control in RIE
		7.3.3 RIE by Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP)
	7.4 Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)
		7.4.1 Bosch Process
		7.4.2 Cryogenic Process
		7.4.3 Critical Issues in DRIE
			7.4.3.1 Loading Effect
			7.4.3.2 Microtrenching Effect
			7.4.3.3 Notching Effect
			7.4.3.4 Micromasking Effect
			7.4.3.5 Ion Induced Damage Effect
	7.5 Atomic Layer Etching (ALE)
	7.6 Ion Milling
	References
Chapter 8: Nanoscale Pattern Transfer by Deposition
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Thin Film Deposition
	8.3 Pattern Transfer by Liftoff
	8.4 Pattern Transfer by Plating
	8.5 Pattern Transfer by Stencil Mask
	8.6 Pattern Formation by Printing
	References
Chapter 9: Indirect Nanofabrication
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Sidewall Lithography
	9.3 Dimensional Subtraction
	9.4 Dimensional Addition
	9.5 Indirect Fabrication of Nanogaps
	9.6 Super-resolution Patterning
	References
Chapter 10: Nanofabrication by Self-Assembly
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Self-Assembly Processes
	10.3 Self-Assembly of Atoms and Molecules
		10.3.1 Self-Assembled Monolayer
		10.3.2 Self-Assembled Supermolecules
		10.3.3 Evaporation Induced Self-Assembly (EISA)
		10.3.4 Self-Assembly of Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
	10.4 Self-Assembly of Colloidal Particles
	10.5 Guided Self-Assembly
		10.5.1 Surface Topography
		10.5.2 Surface Energy
		10.5.3 Electrostatic and Magnetic Forces
		10.5.4 DNA Templates
	10.6 Nanosphere Lithography
	10.7 Block Copolymer Lithography
		10.7.1 Directed Microphase Separation
		10.7.2 Directed Self-Assembly for IC Manufacturing
	10.8 Self-Regulated Porous Alumina
	References
Chapter 11: Applications of Nanofabrication
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Integrated Circuits
	11.3 Photonics
	11.4 Nanotechnology
		11.4.1 Nanomaterials
		11.4.2 Nanoelectronics
		11.4.3 Nanophotonics
		11.4.4 Nanobiotechnology
	References
Index