Nanoelectrocatalyst for Oxygen Reduction Reaction: Fundamentals to Field Applications

Cover
Nanoelectrocatalyst for Oxygen Reduction Reaction: Fundamentals to Field Applications
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
1. Surface Active Nano-islands Bounded PGM and non-PGM based Nano-electrocatalysts¬driven Efficient ORR Activity for DMFCs and AAEMFCs
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 A Historical view of ORR Electrocatalysis
		1.2.1 Pioneering Classical Works on ORR
		1.2.2 Nanostructured Materials for ORR
		1.2.3 Methanol Tolerant ORR Catalysis and Carbon Corrosion Effect
		1.2.4 Surface Active Nano-islands
	1.3 PGM and Non-PGM-Based ORR Electrocatalysts
		1.3.1 Wet Chemical Reduction Process
		1.3.2 Galvanic Replacement Reaction (GRR)
		1.3.3 PGM-based Nano-porous ORR Electrocatalysts
			1.3.3.1 Synthesis of AuPt NPoS
			1.3.3.2 Synthesis of PdPt NPoS
		1.3.4 Non-PGM-based Nano-porous ORR Electrocatalysts
			1.3.4.1 Synthesis of Shaped Silver Nanostructures (AgNs)
	1.4 Morphological Characterization of PGM and Non-PGM Electrocatalysts
		1.4.1 High Resolution-scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (HR-STEM) and High Angle Annular Dark Field (HAADF)-STEM Studies
	1.5 Surface Characterization of PGM Electrocatalysts
		1.5.1 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopic (XPS) Studies
	1.6 Electrochemical Characterization of PGM Electrocatalysts
		1.6.1 Linear Sweep Voltammetry—RDE Studies
			1.6.1.1 Methanol Tolerant ORR Studies
	1.7 DMFC Single-Cell Performance Studies of PGM Electrocatalysts
		1.7.1 Current-voltage (i-V) Curve and Cross-sectional Studies of PGM Electrocatalysts-based Membrane Electrode Assemblies (MEAs)
	1.8 Surface, Electrochemical and Fuel Cell Studies of Non-PGM Electrocatalysts
		1.8.1 XPS, LSV- RDE-accelerated Endurability Test (AET) and AAEMFCs Studies
	1.9 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
2. Recent Developments of Transition Metal Oxide Nanoparticles on Oxygen Reduction Reaction
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Basics of Oxygen Reduction Reaction
	2.3 More on ORR Kinetics
	2.4 Oxygen Evolution Reaction
		2.4.1 Basic Parameters of the ORR/OER Kinetics
			2.4.1.1 Tafel Slope, Overpotential and Current Density
			2.4.1.2 Koutecky–Levich Plot, Number of Electrons and Peroxide
			2.4.1.3 Stability and Cycle Life
		2.4.2 Electrochemical Techniques to Follow ORR/OER Kinetics
			2.4.2.1 Cyclic Voltammetry
			2.4.2.2 Linear Sweep Voltammetry
	2.5 Desired Requirements for ORR/OER Electrocatalyst
		2.5.1 Classification of Electrocatalysts for ORR/OER
	2.6 Metal-Based Electrocatalysts
	2.7 Metal Oxide-Based Electrocatalysts
		2.7.1 Ni-based Electrocatalysts
		2.7.2 Co-based Electrocatalysts
		2.7.3 Poly Metal-based Electrocatalysts
		2.7.4 Perovskite-based Electrocatalysts
		2.7.5 Composite Electrocatalysts
	2.8 Application of ORR/OER in Lithium-Air Battery
	2.9 Summary and Recommendations
	Acknowledgments
	References
3. Electrochemical Characterization of Oxygen Reduction Reaction Catalysts: A Step-by-Step Guide
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 The Electrochemical Characterization Protocol
	3.3 The Three-Electrode Cell
	3.4 The Catalytic Ink
	3.5 The Potentiostat
	3.6 RHE Reference Electrode Preparation
		3.6.1 Electrochemical Activation of the Catalyst
		3.6.2 Ohmic Drop Compensation
		3.6.3 Cyclic Voltammetry with iRcomp and Background Compensation for Capacitive Correction
		3.6.4 Carbon Monoxide Electro-oxidation (CO Stripping)
		3.6.5 Steady-State Polarization Curves towards ORR
		3.6.6 Determination of H2O2 by RRDE
	3.7 Stability Testing
	References
4. Graphene Synthesis via Liquid Phase Exfoliation: Synthetic Approaches toward an Enhanced Nanoparticle Support
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Factors That Affect the Exfoliation
	4.3 Selection of A Suitable Solvent and Technique for LPE of Graphene
	4.4 Non-Covalent Functionalization of Graphene
		4.4.1 Cation-π Interaction
		4.4.2 π-π Interaction
		4.4.3 Steric Forces
	4.5 Covalent Functionalization of Graphene
		4.5.1 Cicloaddition
		4.5.2 Diazonium Functionalization
	4.6 Graphene as Nanoparticle Support
		4.6.1 Ex-situ Hybridization
		4.6.2 In-situ Crystallization
	4.7 Simultaneous Formation of Nanoparticles in LPE of Graphene
		4.7.1 Graphene/PtCu Composite Simultaneous Synthesis
		4.7.2 Experimental Section
		4.7.3 Characterization XRD
		4.7.4 Discussion
	4.8 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
5. Design and Development of Membrane Electrode Assemblies for an Improved ORR towards High-performance PEM Fuel Cells
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Fuel Cells
		5.2.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell
			5.2.1.1 Applications of PEM Fuel Cell
				5.2.1.1a Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA)
	5.3 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR)
		5.3.1 Fabrication of Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA)
		5.3.2 Preparation of Polymer Membranes
		5.3.3 Preparation of Catalyst Layer
		5.3.4 Preparation of Gas Diffusion Layer and Mesoporous Layer
		5.3.5 Assembly of MEA
	5.4 Problems in Current Technology
		5.4.1 Cost and Degradation of the Electrocatalyst
		5.4.2 Degradation of PEM
		5.4.3 Fabrication Method
	5.5 Recent Advancements in MEA
		5.5.1 Mitigation of Mechanical Failure
	5.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
6. An Overview of Energy-efficient and Sustainable Oxygen Reduction Reaction Cathode in Microbial Fuel Cells
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 Fundamentals of Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Microbial Fuel Cells
			6.1.1.1 Various Cathode Catalysts in MFC
			6.1.1.2 Chemical Catalysts (Abiotic Catalysts)
		6.1.2 Metal-based Catalysts in MFCs
			6.1.2.1 Pt-based Catalysts
			6.1.2.2 Noble Metal-based Catalysts
			6.1.2.3 Transition Metal-based Catalysts
			6.1.2.4 Transition Metal-macrocycles-derived Catalysts
			6.1.2.5 Metal-nitrogen-carbon (M-N-C)-based Catalysts
			6.1.2.6 Carbon-based Catalysts in MFCs
				(i) Graphite
				(ii) Carbon black
				(iii) Activated carbon
				(iv) Graphene and heteroatom-doped graphene-based materials
				(v) Carbon nanotubes and nanofibers
		6.1.3 Others
	6.2 Biotic Catalysts
		6.2.1 Chemical Fouling and Biofouling
	6.3 Constraints of ORR Catalysts in MFCs
	6.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
7. Power Electronics Interfaces for Portable and Vehicle PEMFC Systems
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Portable PEMFC Systems
	7.3 Vehicle PEMFC Systems
		7.3.1 Powertrain Analysis
		7.3.2 FCHEV Performance
	7.4 Conclusion
	References
8. Biomass-derived Carbon Electrode Materials for Fuel Cells
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Carbon Electrode Materials from Biomass
	8.3 Production of Biomass-Derived Carbon Materials
		8.3.1 Non-activation
		8.3.2 Chemical Activation
			8.3.2.1 Co-pyrolysis
			8.3.2.2 Pre-treatment and Co-pyrolysis
		8.3.3 Doping Treatments
	8.4 Outlook
	References
9. Core-Shell Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Acidic Medium
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 PEMFC
		9.2.1 Limitations
		9.2.2 Oxygen Reduction Reaction
		9.2.3 Traditional Catalysts
		9.2.4 Core-Shell Catalysts
			9.2.4.1 Strategies for Synthesizing Core-Shell Catalysts
		9.2.5 Chemical Methods
			9.2.5.1 Deposition of a Metal on Preformed Colloidal Nanoparticles
			9.2.5.2 Hydrogen-Sacrificial Protective Method
			9.2.5.3 The Three most Used Methods for the Growth of Core-Shell Nanostructures
			9.2.5.4 Modification of the Traditional Underpotential Deposition (UPD) Method
			9.2.5.5 The Electrochemical Deposition Method
			9.2.5.6 General Considerations to Apply the Methods of De-alloying, Segregation, and Galvanic Replacement
			9.2.5.7 The Pulse Electrochemical Deposition (PED)
		9.2.6 Physical Methods
			9.2.6.1 PVD Method
			9.2.6.2 ALD Method
			9.2.6.3 CVPD Method
	9.3 Core-Shell Catalysts for ORR
		9.3.1 Pd@Pt Core-Shell Catalysts
		9.3.2 Ag@Pt Core-Shell Catalysts
		9.3.3 Ag@PtM Core@Shell Catalysts
		9.3.4 Recent Advances in Core-Shell Catalyst for the ORR
	9.4 Conclusions and Perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
10. Non-Noble Metal Catalysts in Oxygen Reduction Reaction
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Materials in ORR
	10.3 PANI-Based Materials for ORR
		10.3.1 PANI-transition Metal Composite Materials for ORR
		10.3.2 PANI-Non-metal Composite Materials for ORR
	10.4 Polyindole-Based Catalyst Materials for ORR
	10.5 PPy-Based Catalyst for ORR
		10.5.1 PPy-transition Metal Composite Materials for ORR
		10.5.2 PPy-Non-metal Composite Materials for ORR
	10.6 Carbon-Based Materials for ORR
	10.7 Transition Metal-Based Catalysts for ORR
	10.8 Importance of ORR in Fuel Cells
	10.9 Summary and Future Perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
11. Novel Contributions to the Fundamental Role of Structural Engineering in Polymeric Membranes for Alkaline Fuel Cells
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Alkaline Anioin Exchange Membranes (AAEM)
		11.2.1 Structural Conformation
		11.2.2 Factors that Influence the Transport of OH– Ions
		11.2.3 Base Chain and Side Chain Groups
			11.2.3.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
			11.2.3.2 Poly (ether ether ketone) (PEEK)
			11.2.3.3 Poly (arylene ether) (PAEK)
			11.2.3.4 Poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenyleneoxide) (PPO)
			11.2.3.5 Polysulfones (PS)
			11.2.3.6 Poly (ether sulfone) (PES)
			11.2.3.7 Polynorbornene (PNB)
		11.2.4 Polymeric Structures with Grafted Graphene Oxide
	11.3 AFC Performance
		11.3.1 Single-cell Performance
	11.4 Conclusions and Perspectives
	References
12. An Overview of Metal-Air Battery and Applications
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Working Principle of Metal-Air Battery
	12.3 Air Cathodes
		12.3.1 Role of Nanoelectrocatalyst
		12.3.2 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) and Oxygen Evolution Reaction (OER)
	12.4 Selection of Metal Anodes
	12.5 Types of Electrolytes
		12.5.1 Aqueous Electrolyte
		12.5.2 Non-aqueous Electrolyte
		12.5.3 Solid-state Electrolyte (SSE)
		12.5.4 Ionic Liquid Electrolyte
	12.6 Role of Separators
	12.7 Types of MABs
		12.7.1 Lithium-Air Battery (LAB)
		12.7.2 Aluminium-Air Battery (AAB)
		12.7.3 Magnesium-Air Battery (MAB)
		12.7.4 Calcium-Air Battery (CAB)
		12.7.5 Potassium Air Battery (PAB)
		12.7.6 Sodium-Air Battery (SAB)
		12.7.7 Iron-Air Battery (IAB)
		12.7.8 Zinc-Air Battery (ZAB)
	12.8 Recharging of MABs
		12.8.1 Electrical Recharging
		12.8.2 Mechanical Recharging
		12.8.3 Hydraulic Recharging
	12.9 Applications of the MEA’s Batteries
		12.9.1 Electric Vehicle Applications
		12.9.2 Military Applications
		12.9.3 Smart Grid Applications
		12.9.4 Biomedical Applications
	12.10 Summary
	References
13. Carbon Materials and their Performance as Support for Catalytic Nanoparticles
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Corrosion of Carbon and Pt Nanoparticles
	13.3 Nanostructured Carbon Materials as Nanoparticle Support
	13.4 Graphene and Graphene Oxide Support
	13.5 Electrochemically-Oxidized Graphite as A Nanoparticle Support
	References
Index
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