Nanocellulose-Reinforced Thermoplastic Starch Composites: Sustainable Materials for Packaging

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Nanocellulose-Reinforced Thermoplastic Starch Composites: Sustainable Materials for Packaging
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About the editors
Preface
Contents
List of contributing authors
1. Introduction to bio-based packaging materials
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Natural biopolymer
		1.2.1 Polysaccharides
		1.2.2 Protein
	1.3 Synthetic biopolymer
		1.3.1 Polylactic acid
		1.3.2 Polybutylene succinate
		1.3.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
	1.4 Recycle materials
	1.5 Conclusions
	References
2. Fabrication of starch-based packaging materials
	2.1 Introduction and classification of starch biopolymer
	2.2 Starch based packaging materials
		2.2.1 Introduction to packaging materials
		2.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of starch as biodegradable packaging materials
	2.3 Fabrication of starch-based packaging materials
		2.3.1 Synthesis of starch
		2.3.2 Film solution casting
		2.3.3 Melt mixing
		2.3.4 Thermoforming
		2.3.5 Foaming process
		2.3.6 Extrusion process
		2.3.7 Reactive extrusion
		2.3.8 Electrospinning
		2.3.9 3D printing
		2.3.10 Nanotechnology
	2.4 Additives for starch-based packaging material
		2.4.1 Plasticizer
		2.4.2 Crosslinker
		2.4.3 Antibacterial and antimicrobial agents
		2.4.4 Antioxidant or stabilizer
	2.5 Challenge and future prospect on starch based packaging material
	2.6 Conclusions
	References
3. Nanocellulose: from biosources to nanofiber and their applications
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Natural fiber
	3.3 Increased usage of natural fibers as reinforcement for polymer composites
	3.4 Downsides of natural fibers as reinforcement for polymer composites
		3.4.1 Inconsistent fiber properties
		3.4.2 Hydrophilicity of natural fibers
		3.4.3 Poor fiber – matrix adhesion
		3.4.4 Low thermal stability
		3.4.5 Mitigating the drawbacks of sugar palm fibers for improved reinforcing
	3.5 Nanocellulose
		3.5.1 Types of nanocellulose
		3.5.2 Preparation of nanocrystalline cellulose
		3.5.3 Distinct characteristics of NCCs for reinforcement
	3.6 Nanofabrillated cellulose (NFCs)
		3.6.1 Extraction of nanofabrillated cellulose (NFCs)
	3.7 Nanocellulose reinforced starch-based composites
	3.8 Potential application of nanocellulose
	3.9 Conclusions
	References
4. Development of nanocellulose fiber reinforced starch biopolymer composites: a review
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Nanocellulose
		4.2.1 Overview
		4.2.2 Nanocellulose properties and performance
		4.2.3 Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC)
		4.2.4 Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC)
		4.2.5 Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC)
	4.3 Starch biopolymers
		4.3.1 Polymers
		4.3.2 Starch
	4.4 Nanocellulose reinforced starch biopolymer composites
		4.4.1 Starch biopolymer composites
		4.4.2 Nanocellulose
		4.4.3 Mechanical and physical properties of nanocellulose reinforced starch biopolymer composites
	4.5 Recent development of nanocellulose fiber reinforced starch biopolymer composites
		4.5.1 Food packaging
		4.5.2 Food additives
		4.5.3 Paper industry
		4.5.4 Biomedical industry
		4.5.5 Pharmaceutical industry
		4.5.6 Electronic appliances
		4.5.7 Sport industry
	4.6 Conclusions
	4.7 Challenges and future recommendation
	References
5. Highly functional nanocellulose-reinforced thermoplastic starch-based nanocomposites
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Starch/nanocellulose preparation methods
	5.3 Mechanical properties
	5.4 Barrier properties
	5.5 Medical applications
	5.6 Challenges and future recommendations
	5.7 Conclusions
	References
6. Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata) thermoplastic starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Type of packaging materials
	6.3 Sugar palm starch
	6.4 Sugar palm fiber
		6.4.1 Cellulose fiber
		6.4.2 Microcrystalline cellulose
		6.4.3 Nanocellulose fiber
	6.5 Modification and reinforcement of sugar palm starch films
		6.5.1 Plasticization of sugar palm starch films
		6.5.2 Sugar palm starch blend
		6.5.3 Sugar palm starch bilayer films
		6.5.4 Fiber reinforced sugar palm starch biocomposites
		6.5.5 Cellulose reinforced sugar palm starch biocomposites
		6.5.6 Microcrystalline cellulose reinforced sugar palm starch
		6.5.7 Sugar palm nanocellulose reinforced sugar palm starch
		6.5.8 Sugar palm nanocellulose reinforced sugar palm starch/polylactic acid blend biocomposites
	6.6 Conclusions
	6.7 Challenges & future perspective
	References
7. Morphological, water barrier and biodegradable properties of sugar palm nanocellulose/starch biopolymer composites incorporated with cinnamon essential oils
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Materials and methods
		7.2.1 Materials
		7.2.2 Methods
			7.2.2.1 SPS extraction and preparation methods
			7.2.2.2 Fabrication of SPS/SPNCC incorporated CEO nanocomposite films
			7.2.2.3 Film thickness and density of SPS/SPNCC incorporated CEO nanocomposite films
			7.2.2.4 Swelling index
			7.2.2.5 Water vapor permeability (WVP)
			7.2.2.6 Tear and thermo-seal resistance strength
			7.2.2.7 Water solubility
			7.2.2.8 Soil burial
			7.2.2.9 Morphological properties
	7.3 Results and discussion
		7.3.1 Film thickness, density, and water content of SPS/SPNCC incorporated CEO nanocompisite films
		7.3.2 Water absorption (swelling index) SPS/SPNCC incorporated CEO
		7.3.3 Water vapor permeability of SPS/SPNCC incorporated CEO nanocomposite films
		7.3.4 Tear and thermo-seal strength of SPS/SPNCC incorporated CEO nanocomposite films
		7.3.5 Solubility of SPS/SPNCC incorporated CEO nanocomposite films
		7.3.6 Soil burial of SPS/SPNCC incorporated CEO nanocomposite films
		7.3.7 Morphological properties of SPS/SPNCC incorporated CEO nanocomposite films
	7.4 Conclusions
	References
8. Mechanical degradation of sugar palm crystalline nanocellulose reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch (TPS)/poly (lactic acid) (PLA) blend bionanocomposites in aqueous environments
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Materials and methods
		8.2.1 Materials
		8.2.2 Extraction and preparation of SPS
		8.2.3 Fabrication of SPCNC reinforced TPS/PLA blend bionanocomposites sheet
		8.2.4 Biodegradation in aqueous environments
		8.2.5 Tensile testing
		8.2.6 Flexural testing
		8.2.7 Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
	8.3 Results and discussion
		8.3.1 Weight lost in aqueous environments
		8.3.2 Mechanical degradation within aqueous environments
		8.3.3 Morphological properties of the mechanical degradation
	References
9. Araucaria Araucana thermoplastic starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 A. Araucana starch
		9.2.1 Extraction and preparation of A. Araucana starch
		9.2.2 Properties of A. Araucana starch
	9.3 Classification of fiber
		9.3.1 Cellulose fiber
		9.3.2 Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)
		9.3.3 Nanocellulose (NC)
	9.4 Modification of A. Araucana starch films
		9.4.1 Plasticization of A. Araucana starch films
		9.4.2 A. Araucana starch blend
		9.4.3 Fiber reinforced A. Araucana starch biocomposites
		9.4.4 Cellulose reinforced A. Araucana starch biocomposites
		9.4.5 Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) reinforced A. Araucana starch
		9.4.6 Nanocellulose reinforced A. Araucana starch
	9.5 Conclusions
	References
10. Banana starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Banana
	10.3 Banana starch
		10.3.1 Extraction and preparation of banana starch
		10.3.2 Properties of banana starch
		10.3.3 Properties of banana thermoplastic starch
	10.4 Lignocellulosic fiber: macro to nano-sized banana fiber
	10.5 Modification of banana starch thermoplastic
	10.6 Nanocellulose reinforced banana thermoplastic starch composites
	10.7 Conclusions
	References
11. Barley thermoplastic starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	11.1 Barley-based starch
	11.2 Barley thermoplastic starch
	11.3 Nanocellulose reinforcement in barley thermoplastic starch
	11.4 Potential application of nanocellulose reinforced barley thermoplastic starch composites
	11.5 Conclusions
	References
12. Cassava starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 History of cassava plant
	12.3 Cassava starch
		12.3.1 Extraction and preparation of cassava starch
		12.3.2 Properties of cassava starch (CS)
	12.4 Lignocellulosic fibre
		12.4.1 Classification of fibre
		12.4.2 Cellulose fibre
		12.4.3 Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)
		12.4.4 Nanocellulose Fibre
	12.5 Modification of cassava starch films
		12.5.1 Cassava starch biopolymer reinforced with biofibres
		12.5.2 Plasticization of cassava starch films
		12.5.3 Cassava starch blend
		12.5.4 Cassava starch bilayer films
		12.5.5 Cellulose reinforced cassava starch biocomposites
		12.5.6 Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) reinforced cassava starch
		12.5.7 Nanocellulose reinforced cassava starch
	12.6 Challenges and future perspective
	12.7 Conclusions
	References
13. Corn starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Corn plant
	13.3 Corn starch
		13.3.1 Extraction and synthesis of corn starch
		13.3.2 Properties of corn starch
	13.4 Lignocellulosic fiber
		13.4.1 Classification of fiber: corn
		13.4.2 Cellulose fiber
		13.4.3 Nanocellulose fiber
	13.5 Modification of corn starch films
		13.5.1 Plasticization of corn starch films
		13.5.2 Corn starch blend
		13.5.3 Corn starch bilayer films
		13.5.4 Fiber reinforced corn starch biocomposites
		13.5.5 Cellulose reinforced corn starch biocomposites
		13.5.6 Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) reinforced corn starch
		13.5.7 Nanocellulose reinforced corn starch
	13.6 Application, challenges and future perspective
	13.7 Conclusions
	References
14. Horse chestnut thermoplastic starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	14.1 Introduction
		14.1.1 Types of packaging material
		14.1.2 Bio-based plastic
		14.1.3 Biopolymer as packaging materials
		14.1.4 Starch
		14.1.5 Horse chestnut starch
		14.1.6 Extraction and preparation of horse chestnut starch
		14.1.7 Properties of horse chestnut starch
		14.1.8 Preparation of thermoplastic from horse chestnut
		14.1.9 Advantage and disadvantage of biopolymer for packaging
		14.1.10 Lignocellulosic fiber
		14.1.12 Microcrystalline cellulose
		14.1.13 Nanocellulose fiber
		14.1.14 Modification of horse chestnut starch film
		14.1.15 Challenges and future perspective
	14.2 Conclusions
	References
15. Oat thermoplastic starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Starch
		15.2.1 Amylose
		15.2.2 Amylopectin
	15.3 Oat Starch
		15.3.1 Extraction and preparation of oat starch
		15.3.2 Properties of oat starch
	15.4 Modification of oat starch films
		15.4.1 Plasticization of oat starch films
		15.4.2 Nanocellulose reinforced oat starch nanocomposite films
	15.5 Conclusions
	References
16. Pea thermoplastic starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Types of packaging materials
		16.2.1 Glass
		16.2.2 Metal
		16.2.3 Plastics
	16.3 Bio-based plastics
	16.4 Starch
	16.5 Pea starch (PS)
		16.5.1 Extraction and preparation of PS
		16.5.2 Properties of PS
		16.5.3 Preparation of thermoplastic pea starch
	16.6 Advantages and disadvantages of biopolymer plastics for packaging
	16.7 Lignocellulosic fibre
		16.7.1 Cellulose fibre
		16.7.2 Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)
		16.7.3 Nanocellulose fibre (NC)
	16.8 Modification of starch films
	16.9 Challenges and future perspective
	16.10 Conclusions
	References
17. Potato thermoplastic starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Potato based starch
	17.3 Potato thermoplastic starch
	17.4 Potato thermoplastic starch composites
	17.5 Nanocellulose reinforcement in potato thermoplastic starch
		17.5.1 Properties evaluation of nanocellulose reinforced potato thermoplastic starch composites
		17.5.2 Potential application of nanocellulose-reinforced potato  thermoplastic starch composites
	17.6 Conclusions
	References
18. Recent developments in sago starch thermoplastic bio-composites
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Starch sources and fundamental characteristics
	18.3 Physicochemical properties of sago starch
	18.4 Manufacturing process of thermoplastic-based starch films
	18.5 Sago starch modifications
		18.5.1 Plasticizer addition
		18.5.2 Nanoparticle addition
		18.5.3 Nanocellulose addition
		18.5.4 Fiber as filler agent
		18.5.5 Polymer blending and cross-linking agents
		18.5.6 Challenges and future recommendations
	18.6 Conclusions
	References
19. Review on sago thermoplastic starch composite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Overview of sago starch processing
	19.3 Sago thermoplastic starch (TPS) composite film
	19.4 Sago thermoplastic starch (TPS) nanocomposite films
	19.5 Development challenges
	19.6 Conclusions
	References
20. Rice thermoplastic starch nanocomposite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Rice thermoplastic starch-based biopolymers reinforced with nanocellulose
		20.2.1 Materials composition
		20.2.2 Interaction between the constituents
	20.3 Effects of nanocellulose addition in thermoplastic rice starch-based biopolymers
		20.3.1 Optical properties
		20.3.2 Mechanical properties
		20.3.3 Thermal properties
		20.3.4 Barrier properties
		20.3.5 Biodegradability
	20.4 Applications
	20.5 Future studies
	20.6 Conclusions
	References
21. Wheat thermoplastic starch composite films reinforced with nanocellulose
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Wheat
		21.2.1 Wheat starch
	21.3 Nanocellulose
	21.4 Performance evaluation on nanocellulose reinforced wheat thermoplastic starch composite
		21.4.1 Mechanical performance of nanocellulose-reinforced wheat thermoplastic starch composite
		21.4.2 Thermal analysis nanocellulose-reinforced wheat thermoplastic starch composite
	21.5 Conclusions
	References
22. Regulations for food packaging materials
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 General knowledge of safety and regulations for food packaging
	22.3 Asia
		22.3.1 Malaysia
		22.3.2 Japan
		22.3.3 China
		22.3.4 India
	22.4 Europe
	22.5 America
		22.5.1 History of formal food packaging regulations in the United States
		22.5.2 The United States food packaging regulations
		22.5.3 The ecological consequences of materials employed in the packaging of food
		22.5.4 Containers made of inflexible plastic
		22.5.5 Regulations
		22.5.6 The United States’ exposure approach to FCM legislation
		22.5.7 The process of enforcing regulations in the United States regarding food packaging materials
		22.5.8 A pragmatic strategy for navigating the regulatory framework of food packaging materials in the United States
	22.6 Australia and Africa
		22.6.1 Regulations governing food packaging materials in Australia
		22.6.2 Minimizing environmental damage in the natural surroundings
		22.6.3 Regulations governing food packaging materials in Africa
		22.6.4 Production of food based on cereals and wheat
		22.6.5 Beers
		22.6.6 Food packaging; reuse, reduce, and recycle
	22.7 Conclusions
	References
23 Environmental advantages and challenges of nanocellulose reinforced
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Obtaining nanocellulose from renewable sources and its environmental advantage to replace plastics
		23.2.1 Nanocellulose extraction from natural fibers
	23.3 Types of nanocellulose, methods for obtaining and the main physicochemical characteristics
	23.4 Nanocelullose applied in the packaging development
	23.5 Biocomposites
	23.6 Use of starch in bionanocomposites formulations containing nanocellulose to improve mechanical strength and water resistance
	23.7 Conclusions
	References
Index