Nanocarbon-Inorganic Hybrids: Next Generation Composites for Sustainable Energy Applications

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Nanocarbon-Inorganic Hybrids: Next Generation Composites for Sustainable Energy Applications
Copyright
Preface
Contents
Contributing authors
Part I: Nanocarbon building blocks
	1. A short introduction on carbon nanotubes
		1.1 Introduction
			1.2 Structural aspects
			1.2.1 Chirality
			1.2.2 Defects
			1.2.3 Doping
		1.3 Properties of CNTs
			1.3.1 Mechanical properties
			1.3.2 Electronic properties
			1.3.3 Thermal properties
		1.4 Characterization
		1.5 Synthesis
			1.5.1 Laser ablation
			1.5.2 Arc discharge
			1.5.3 Molten salt route / electrolytic process
			1.5.4 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
		1.6 Post-synthesis treatments
			1.6.1 Purification
			1.6.2 Separation of metallic and semiconducting CNTs
			1.6.3 Functionalization
			1.6.4 Assembly
		1.7 Summary
		Bibliography
	2. Synthesis, characterisation and properties of graphene
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Properties
		2.3 Synthesis
			2.3.1 Micromechanical cleavage
			2.3.2 Liquid phase exfoliation
			2.3.3 Precipitation frommetals/CVD
			2.3.4 Epitaxial growth from SiC
		2.4 Characterization
		Bibliography
	3. Functionalization of carbon nanotubes
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Functionalization.Why?
		3.3 Types of functionalization
			3.3.1 Covalent functionalization
			3.3.2 Noncovalent functionalization
		3.4 Functionalization with metals
		3.5 Summary
		Bibliography
	4. The importance of defects and dopants within carbon nanomaterials during the fabrication of polymer composites
		4.1 Introduction
			4.1.1 Carbon nanostructures and their properties
			4.1.2 Doped carbon nanostructures
			4.1.3 Defects in carbon nanostructures
			4.1.4 Functionalization of carbon nanostructures for nanocomposites
		4.2 Incorporation of nanocarbons into polymer composites and hybrids
			4.2.1 Types of polymer composites
			4.2.2 Synthesis approaches
		4.3 Properties
			4.3.1 Mechanical properties
			4.3.2 Thermal properties
			4.3.3 Electrical properties
			4.3.4 Optical properties
			4.3.5 Biocompatibility
			4.3.6 Biodegradation
			4.3.7 Permeability
		4.4 Summary
		Bibliography
Part II: Synthesis and characterisation of hybrids
	5. Synthesis strategies of nanocarbon hybrids
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Ex situ approaches
			5.2.1 Covalent interactions
			5.2.2 Noncovalent interactions
		5.3 In situ approaches
			5.3.1 In situ polymerization
			5.3.2 Inorganic hybridization from metal salts
			5.3.3 Electrochemical processes
			5.3.4 Sol–gel processes
			5.3.5 Gas phase deposition
		5.4 Other nanocarbons
		5.5 Comparison of synthesis techniques
		5.6 Summary
		Nomenclature
		Bibliography
	6. Graphene and its hybrids with inorganic nanoparticles, polymers and other materials
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Synthesis
		6.3 Nanocarbon (graphene/C60/SWNT) hybrids
		6.4 Graphene-polymer composites
		6.5 Functionalization of graphene and related aspects
		6.6 Graphene-inorganic nanoparticle hybrids
		6.7 Graphene hybrids with SnO2, MoS2 and WS2 as anodes in batteries
		6.8 Graphene-MOF hybrids
		6.9 Summary
		Bibliography
	7. Sustainable carbon hybrid materialsmade by hydrothermal carbonization and their use in energy applications
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Hydrothermal synthesis of carbonaceousmaterials
			7.2.1 From pure carbohydrates
			7.2.2 From complex biomass
			7.2.3 Energy applications of hydrothermal carbons and their hybrids
		7.3 Summary
		Bibliography
	8. Nanocarbon-based composites
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Integration routes: From filler to other more complex structures
			8.2.1 Filler route
			8.2.2 Evaluation of reinforcement
			8.2.3 Other properties
		8.3 Hierarchical route
			8.3.1 Structure and improvement in properties
			8.3.2 Other properties
		8.4 Fiber route
			8.4.1 Different assembly routes
			8.4.2 Assembly properties and structure
			8.4.3 Assembly composites
			8.4.4 Other properties of nanocarbon assemblies
		8.5 Summary
		Bibliography
	9. Carbon-Carbon Composites
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Typology of C3 materials
		9.3 Synthesis
		9.4 Identification of the structural features of C3 material
		9.5 Surface chemistry
		9.6 Summary
		Bibliography
	10. Graphite oxide-MOF hybrid materials
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Building blocks
			10.2.1 Graphite oxide
			10.2.2 Metal Organic Frameworks:MOF-5, HKUST-1 and MIL-100(Fe)
		10.3 Building the hybrid materials: Surface texture and chemistry
		10.4 MOF-Graphite oxides composites as adsorbents of toxic gases
			10.4.1 Ammonia
			10.4.2 Nitrogen dioxide
			10.4.3 Hydrogen sulfide
		10.5 Beyond the MOF-Graphite oxides composites
		10.6 Summary
		Bibliography
Part III: Applications of nanocarbon hybrids
	11. Batteries/Supercapacitors: Hybrids with CNTs
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Application of hybrids with CNTs for batteries
			11.2.1 Lithium ion battery
			11.2.2 Lithium sulfur battery
			11.2.3 Lithium air battery
		11.3 Application of hybrids with CNTs in supercapacitor
			11.3.1 CNT-based carbon hybrid for supercapacitors
			11.3.2 CNT-based inorganic hybrid for supercapacitors
		11.4 Summary
		Acknowledgment
		Bibliography
	12. Graphene-metal oxide hybrids for lithium ion batteries and electrochemical capacitors
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Graphene for LIBs and ECs
		12.3 Graphene-metal oxide hybrids in LIBs and ECs
			12.3.1 Typical structural models of graphene-metal oxide hybrids
			12.3.2 Anchored model
			12.3.3 Encapsulated model
			12.3.4 Sandwich-like model
			12.3.5 Layeredmodel
			12.3.6 Mixed models
		12.4 Summary
		Acknowledgments
		Bibliography
	13. Nanocarbons for field emission devices
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Carbon nanotubes – general considerations
			13.2.1 Field emission from nanocarbons
			13.2.2 Emission from nanowalls and CNTs walls
		13.3 Applications
			13.3.1 Field emission electron guns for electronmicroscopes
			13.3.2 Displays
			13.3.3 Microtriodes and E-beam lithography
			13.3.4 Microwave power amplifiers
			13.3.5 Ionization gauges
			13.3.6 Pulsed X-ray sources and tomography
		13.4 Summary
		Acknowledgments
		Bibliography
	14. Carbon, carbon hybrids and composites for polymer electrolyte fuel cells
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Carbon as electrode and electrocatalyst
			14.2.1 Structure and properties
			14.2.2 Electrochemical properties
			14.2.3 Applications
		14.3 Carbon, carbon hybrids and carbon composites in PEFCs
			14.3.1 Carbon as structural component in PEFCs
			14.3.2 Carbon as PEFC catalyst support
			14.3.3 Carbon hybrids and composites as ORR electrocatalysts
		14.4 Summary
		Nomenclature
		Bibliography
	15. Nanocarbon materials for heterogeneous catalysis
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Relevant properties of nanocarbons
			15.2.1 Textural properties and macroscopic shaping
			15.2.2 Surface chemistry and functionalization
			15.2.3 Confinement effect
		15.3 Nanocarbon-based catalysts
			15.3.1 Dehydrogenation of Hydrocarbons
			15.3.2 Dehydrogenations of alcohols
			15.3.3 Other reactions
		15.4 Nanocarbon as catalyst support
			15.4.1 Catalyst preparation strategies
			15.4.2 Applications in heterogeneous catalysis
		15.5 Summary
		Bibliography
	16. Advanced photocatalytic materials by nanocarbon hybrid materials
		16.1 Introduction
			16.1.1 Hybrid vs. composite nanomaterials
			16.1.2 Use of nanocarbon hybrid materials in photoreactions
		16.2 Nanocarbon characteristics
			16.2.1 The role of defects
			16.2.2 Modification of nanocarbons
			16.2.3 New aspects
			16.2.4 Nanocarbon quantum dots
		16.3 Mechanisms of nanocarbon promotion in photoactivated processes
		16.4 Advantages of nanocarbon-semiconductor hybrid materials
		16.5 Nanocarbon-semiconductor hybrid materials for sustainable energy
		16.6 Summary
		Acknowledgments
		Bibliography
	17. Electrochromic and photovoltaic applications of nanocarbon hybrids
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Nanocarbon Hybrids for electrochromicmaterials and devices
			17.2.1 Intrinsic electrochromismof nanocarbons
			17.2.2 Synthesis and electrochromic properties of nanocarbon–metal oxide hybrids
			17.2.3 Electrochromic properties of nanocarbon–polymer hybrids
		17.3 Nanocarbon hybrids for photovoltaic applications
			17.3.1 Workingmechanisms of PECs and OPVs
			17.3.2 Nanocarbon hybrids for PECs
			17.3.3 Nanocarbon hybrids for OPVs
		17.4 Summary
		Acknowledgments
		Bibliography
	18. Carbon nanomaterials as integrative components in dye-sensitized solar cells
		18.1 Today’s dye-sensitized solar cells. Definition and potential
		18.2 Major challenges in improving the performance of DSSCs
		18.3 Carbon nanomaterials as integrativematerials in semiconducting electrodes
			18.3.1 Interlayers made out of carbon nanomaterials
			18.3.2 Implementation of carbon nanomaterials into electrode networks
		18.4 Carbon nanomaterials for solid-state electrolytes
			18.4.1 Fullerene-based solid-state electrolytes
			18.4.2 CNTs-based solid-state electrolytes
			18.4.3 Graphene-based solid-state electrolytes
		18.5 Versatility of carbon nanomaterials-based hybrids as novel type of dyes
			18.5.1 Fullerene-baseddyes
			18.5.2 Graphene-based dyes
		18.6 Photoelectrodes prepared by nanographene hybrids
			18.6.1 Preparation of photoelectrodes by using noncovalently functionalized graphene
			18.6.2 Preparation of photoelectrodes by preparing nanographene-based building blocks via electrostatic interactions
		18.7 Summary
		Bibliography
	19. Importance of edge atoms
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 External edges
		19.3 Internal edges
		19.4 Edge reconstruction
		19.5 Summary
		Bibliography
Index