Nano Drug Delivery Strategies for the Treatment of Cancers

Front Cover
Nano Drug Delivery Strategies for the Treatment of Cancers
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
1 Emergence of novel targeting systems and conventional therapies for effective cancer treatment
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Conventional therapies for the treatment of cancer
		1.2.1 Role of surgery for cancer treatment
			1.2.1.1 Types of surgery
			1.2.1.2 Risk and side effects of surgery in cancer treatment
		1.2.2 Role of radiotherapy for cancer treatment
			1.2.2.1 Principles of radiation therapy
			1.2.2.2 Some types of radiation therapy
		1.2.3 Role of chemotherapy in cancer treatment
			1.2.3.1 Principles of cancer treatment by chemotherapy
			1.2.3.2 Indications for chemotherapy
	1.3 Novel approaches for the treatment of cancer
		1.3.1 Lipid-based nanomedicines
			1.3.1.1 Liposomes
			1.3.1.2 Niosomes
			1.3.1.3 Ethosome
				1.3.1.3.1 Ethosomal drug delivery systems showed various benefits
			1.3.2.4 Transferosome
				1.3.2.4.1 Characteristics of transferosomes
			1.3.2.5 Nanoemulsion
			1.3.2.6 Solid lipid nanoparticles
			1.3.1.7 Nanostructured lipid carriers
				1.3.1.7.1 Nanosuspension
		1.3.2 Polymer-based nanomedicines
			1.3.2.1 Carbon nanotubes
			1.3.2.2 Dendrimers
			1.3.2.3 Polymeric nanoparticles
			1.3.2.4 Polymeric micelles
		1.3.3 Miscellaneous nanocarriers
			1.3.3.1 Quantum dots
	1.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
2 Nanomedicine: future therapy for brain cancers
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Global statistics of brain cancers
	2.3 Major drawbacks and circumstances in brain tumors
	2.4 General strategy of nanoparticles for the treatment of brain cancers
		2.4.1 Physical properties
		2.4.2 Passive targeting
		2.4.3 Active targeting
	2.5 Mechanistic pathways employed by nanoparticles to cross the blood–brain barrier
		2.5.1 Carrier-mediated transport
		2.5.2 Receptor-mediated transport
		2.5.3 Adsorptive-mediated transport
	2.6 Nanomedicine for the treatment and diagnosis of gliomas
	2.7 Nanomedicine for the diagnosis of brain cancers
		2.7.1 Magnetic resonance imaging
		2.7.2 Raman scattering and computed tomography imaging
		2.7.3 Nanoparticles as carriers of fluorescent dyes for imaging tumors
		2.7.4 Nanoparticles as fluorescent agents for tumor imaging
	2.8 Nanomedicine for the treatment of brain cancer
		2.8.1 Metal nanoparticles
			2.8.1.1 Silica nanoparticles
			2.8.1.2 Titanium oxide nanoparticles
			2.8.1.3 Carbon nanodots
			2.8.1.4 Magnetic nanoparticles
			2.8.1.5 Gold nanoparticles
		2.8.2 Liposomes
		2.8.3 Polymeric nanoparticles
		2.8.4 Dendrimers
	2.9 Nanomedicines for brain cancer using a combinatorial approach
		2.9.1 Combination of magnetic resonance imaging and therapy
		2.9.2 Combination of optical imaging and therapy
		2.9.3 Combination of multimodal imaging and therapy
	2.10 Future perspectives and challenges
	2.11 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	Abbreviations
	References
3 Nano drug delivery strategies for the treatment and diagnosis of oral and throat cancers
	3.1 Oral and throat cancers
		3.1.1 Conventional therapies for the management of oral cancers
		3.1.2 Cisplatin
		3.1.3 5-Fluorouracil
		3.1.4 Paclitaxel/docetaxel
	3.2 Transport barriers to drug delivery in head and neck tumors
	3.3 Nanotechnology in head and neck cancer detection and diagnosis
		3.3.1 Nano-based molecular imaging
			3.3.1.1 Magnetic resonance imaging
			3.3.1.2 Optical coherence tomography
			3.3.1.3 Photoacoustic imaging
			3.3.1.4 Surface plasmon resonance scattering
			3.3.1.5 Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy
			3.3.1.6 Quantum dots imaging and biomarkers
		3.3.2 Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems for the treatment of head and neck cancer
			3.3.2.1 Cell targeting with nanoparticles
			3.3.2.2 Drug delivery using nanoparticles for cancer stem-like cell targeting
			3.3.2.3 Tumor microenvironment targeted nanotherapy
				3.3.2.3.1 Nano-chemotherapeutics in targeting tumor vasculature
				3.3.2.3.2 Nano-chemotherapeutics to target the chemical environment (hypoxia and acidic pH) of tumors
				3.3.2.3.3 Nano-chemotherapeutics targeting metastasis
				3.3.2.3.4 Potential of nanoparticles in head and neck cancer immunotherapy
				3.3.2.3.5 Nanomedicine as a strategy for natural compound delivery for cancer treatment
	3.4 Conclusion
	References
4 Nanoparticles and lung cancer
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Cause, molecular target
		4.1.2 Traditional therapies for treatment
		4.1.3 Shortcomings with existing treatments
	4.2 Nanotechnology and lung cancer
		4.2.1 Organic nanoparticles for lung cancer
		4.2.2 Inorganic nanoparticles for lung cancer
		4.2.3 Natural or biomaterials as nanoparticles
		4.2.4 Other novel nanoparticles systems for lung cancer
	4.3 Conclusion
	References
5 Nanoparticles and liver cancer
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Drug delivery to the liver with nanoparticles
	5.3 Cellular uptake in vitro
	5.4 Antitumor efficacy in vivo
	5.5 Doxorubicin and lovastatin co-delivery liposomes
		5.5.1 Anticancer activity
		5.5.2 Histological analysis
	5.6 Gold nanoparticles
		5.6.1 Gold nanoparticle thermal therapy
		5.6.2 Mechanism
		5.6.3 Antitumor effect in vivo
	5.7 Toxicity
	5.8 Conclusion
	References
6 Nanoparticles and pancreas cancer
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Physiology of pancreatic cancer
	6.3 Current scenario and epidemiology of pancreatic cancer
	6.4 Treatment of pancreatic cancer
	6.5 Mechanism of nanoparticle uptake in pancreatic cancer
	6.6 Receptor for targeting pancreatic cancer
		6.6.1 Epidermal growth factor receptor
		6.6.2 CD44 receptor
		6.6.3 Folate receptor
		6.6.4 Transferrin receptor
		6.6.5 Vascular endothelial growth factor
	6.7 Characterization techniques
	6.8 Nanocarrier systems in the treatment of pancreatic cancer
		6.8.1 Nanoparticles
		6.8.2 Liposomes
		6.8.3 Carbon nanotubes
		6.8.4 Dendrimer
		6.8.5 Micelles
		6.8.6 Nanogel
		6.8.7 Quantum dots
	6.9 Conclusion
	References
7 The role of nanoparticles in the treatment of gastric cancer
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Nanoparticles in the imaging of gastric cancer
		7.2.1 Nanoparticles in systemic imaging
		7.2.2 Other ways of imaging
			7.2.2.1 Nanoparticles in locoregional imaging
			7.2.2.2 Nanoparticles in theranostics
	7.3 Nanoparticles in the detection of tumors
		7.3.1 Nanoparticles in the early detection of gastric cancer via endoscopy
		7.3.2 Nanoparticles in the detection of gastric cancer using biomarkers
		7.3.3 Nanoparticles in the detection of circulating tumor cells in gastric cancer
	7.4 Nanoparticle-based therapy of gastric cancer
		7.4.1 Chitosan nanoparticles
		7.4.2 Polymeric nanoparticles
		7.4.3 Silver nanoparticles
		7.4.4 Gold nanoparticles
		7.4.5 Magnetic nanoparticles
		7.4.6 Carbon nanotubes
		7.4.7 Photodynamic therapy
		7.4.8 Miscellaneous
	7.5 Conclusion
	Disclosure statement
	Abbreviations
	References
8 Nanoparticles and colon cancer
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Molecular biology of colon cancer
		8.2.1 Adenoma–carcinoma sequence
		8.2.2 Genetic mutations
		8.2.3 Biomarkers
			8.2.3.1 Diagnostic biomarkers
				8.2.3.1.1 Genomic instability: an evolving hallmark of colon cancer
					(a) Chromosomal instability
					(b) Microsatellite instability
				8.2.3.1.2 Insulin-like growth factor binding protein 2
				8.2.3.1.3 Pyruvate kinase M2
				8.2.3.1.4 Telomerase
			8.2.3.2 Predictive biomarkers
				8.2.3.2.1 B-Raf proto-oncogene serine/threonine kinase (BRAF)
				8.2.3.2.2 Kirstein rat sarcoma
				8.2.3.2.3 Ezrin
				8.2.3.2.4 DNA base excision repair genes
				8.2.3.2.5 PTEN
			8.2.3.3 Prognostic biomarkers
				8.2.3.3.1 Adenomatous polyposis coli
				8.2.3.3.2 Tumor protein-53
				8.2.3.3.3 Deleted in colon cancer [loss of heterozygosity (18q)]
				8.2.3.3.4 SMAD4
				8.2.3.3.5 Epidermal growth factor receptor
				8.2.3.3.6 Vascular endothelial growth factor
				8.2.3.3.7 Aberrant DNA methylation
				8.2.3.3.8 BAX
	8.3 Conventional treatment options for colon cancer and their limitations
		8.3.1 Surgical resection
		8.3.2 Radiation therapy
		8.3.3 Chemotherapy
		8.3.4 Targeted therapy
		8.3.5 Immunotherapy
	8.4 Nanoparticles: the modern trends in the treatment of colon cancer
		8.4.1 pH-responsive nanoparticles
		8.4.2 Liposomes
		8.4.3 Polymeric nanoparticles
			8.4.3.1 Nanocapsules
			8.4.3.2 Nanospheres
		8.4.4 Solid lipid nanoparticles
		8.4.5 Metallic nanoparticles
		8.4.6 Magnetic nanoparticles
		8.4.7 Viral nanoparticles
		8.4.8 Polymeric micelles
		8.4.9 Hydrogel
		8.4.10 Polymerosomes
		8.4.11 Carbon nanotubes
	8.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	Conflict of interest
	References
9 Treating blood cancer with nanotechnology: A paradigm shift
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Cancer statistics
	9.3 Blood cancer
	9.4 Types of blood cancer
	9.5 Pathophysiology of blood cancer
	9.6 Therapies for blood cancer
		9.6.1 Gene therapy
		9.6.2 Chemotherapy
		9.6.3 Immunotherapy
		9.6.4 Radiation therapy
		9.6.5 Advancements in blood cancer treatment
	9.7 Nanotechnology in treatment of cancer
		9.7.1 Nanoparticles
		9.7.2 Drug–protein conjugation
		9.7.3 Liposomes
		9.7.4 Polymeric nanoparticles
		9.7.5 Dendrimeric nanoparticles
		9.7.6 Quantum dots
		9.7.7 Carbon nanotubes
		9.7.8 Metal nanoparticles
		9.7.9 Silver nanoparticles
		9.7.10 Gold nanoparticles
		9.7.11 Mesoporous silica nanoparticles
		9.7.12 Properties of nanocarriers
	9.8 Challenges and remedies in the treatment of leukemia
		9.8.1 Challenges
		9.8.2 Biological barriers
		9.8.3 Reticuloendothelial system
		9.8.4 Renal system
		9.8.5 Remedies
	9.9 Diagnosis of blood cancer
		9.9.1 Current theranostic approach
		9.9.2 Recent and ongoing clinical trials
	9.10 Regulation aspects of nanotechnology-based tools
	References
10 Nanoparticles and skin cancer
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Classification of skin cancer
		10.2.1 Nonmelanoma skin cancer
		10.2.2 Malignant melanoma
	10.3 Pathogenesis of skin cancer
		10.3.1 Ultraviolet radiation
		10.3.2 Immunosuppression and organ transplant recipients
		10.3.3 Human papillomavirus
	10.4 Detection of skin cancer
	10.5 Skin cancer treatment modalities
		10.5.1 Curettage and electrodesiccation
		10.5.2 Cryotherapy
		10.5.3 Photodynamic therapy (PDT)
		10.5.4 Radiation therapy
		10.5.5 Hedgehog pathway inhibitors
		10.5.6 Nonbiologics
		10.5.7 Synthetic chemotherapeutic agents
			10.5.7.1 Doxorubicin
			10.5.7.2 5-Fluorouracil
			10.5.7.3 Bleomycin
			10.5.7.4 Cisplatin
			10.5.7.5 Mitoxantrone
			10.5.7.6 Imiquimod
		10.5.8 Natural-origin bioactives
			10.5.8.1 Curcumin
			10.5.8.2 Tea polyphenols
			10.5.8.3 Trehalose
			10.5.8.4 Diallyl sulfide
			10.5.8.5 Aloe-emodin
			10.5.8.6 Luffin
			10.5.8.7 Glycans
		10.5.9 Photosensitizers
			10.5.9.1 5-Amino levulinic acid
			10.5.9.2 Temoporfin
			10.5.9.3 Zinc phthalocyanine
		10.5.10 Miscellaneous products
			10.5.10.1 Tretinoin
			10.5.10.2 Celecoxib (diaryl heterocycle)
		10.5.11 Biologics
			10.5.11.1 DNA repair enzymes
				10.5.11.1.1 Photolyase
				10.5.11.1.2 T4 endonuclease V (dimericine)
	10.6 Nanocarriers as a potential tool for effective treatment of skin cancer
		10.6.1 Nanoparticles
			10.6.1.1 Polymeric nanoparticles
			10.6.1.2 Metallic nanoparticles
			10.6.1.3 Lipid nanoparticles
				10.6.1.3.1 Solid-lipid nanoparticles
				10.6.1.3.2 Nanostructured lipid carriers
	10.7 Conclusion
	References
11 Nanoparticles and prostate cancer
	11.1 Introduction
		11.1.1 Cancer
		11.1.2 Prostate gland and prostate cancer
	11.2 Nanotechnology
	11.3 Drug delivery
		11.3.1 Drug targeting toward tumor cells
		11.3.2 Active and passive targeting
	11.4 Routes of drug delivery to the prostate
		11.4.1 Systemic route
		11.4.2 Locoregional route
			11.4.2.1 Intraprostatic route
			11.4.2.2 Vas deferens
			11.4.2.3 Transrectal
	11.5 Classification of nanoparticle systems for prostate targeting
		11.5.1 Liposomal nanoparticles in prostate cancer
		11.5.2 Albumin-bound system
		11.5.3 Polymeric nanoparticle systems for cancer treatment
		11.5.4 Carbon-based system
		11.5.5 Dendrimeric platform
		11.5.6 Quantum dot device
		11.5.7 Gold nanoparticulate system
		11.5.8 Metallic nanoparticle platform
		11.5.9 Nanocolloidal
	11.6 Treatment for prostate cancer: nanotechnology and prostate cancer
		11.6.1 Nanochemoprevention of prostate cancer
		11.6.2 Treatment of prostate cancer via gene delivery with nanomaterials
		11.6.3 Treatment of prostate cancer via cancer immunotherapy with nanomaterials
	11.7 Nanotechnology approach and prostate cancer diagnosis
		11.7.1 Nanotechnologies for fluorescence diagnosis of prostate cancer
		11.7.2 Targeted prostate-specific antigen nanoprobe for imaging prostate cancer
		11.7.3 Targeted prostate-specific membrane antigen nanoprobes for imaging prostate cancer
	11.8 Conclusion
	References
12 Nanomedicine-based multidrug resistance reversal strategies in cancer therapy
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Multidrug resistance in cancer therapy: a brief account
	12.3 Mechanisms of multidrug resistance in cancer cells
		12.3.1 Overexpression of P-glycoprotein efflux proteins
		12.3.2 Xenobiotics
		12.3.3 Tumor suppressor genes
		12.3.4 Hypoxia
		12.3.5 Autophagy
	12.4 Novel strategies to combat multidrug resistance in cancer therapy
	12.5 Nanomedicine-based multidrug resistance reversal strategies
	12.6 Multidrug resistance in cancer therapy: the case of doxorubicin
	12.7 Multidrug resistance reversal of doxorubicin-loaded nanomedicines
		12.7.1 Nanomedicine coloaded with small interfering RNA and doxorubicin
		12.7.2 Nanomedicine coloaded with P-gp efflux inhibitors and doxorubicin
		12.7.3 Nanomedicine coloaded with d-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate and doxorubicin
		12.7.4 Miscellaneous approaches
	12.8 Conclusion
		12.8.1 Grant support
	Abbreviations
	References
Index
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