Mycorrhizal Symbiosis and Agroecosystem Restoration

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Introduction to Mycorrhizal Fungi
	1: Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Mined Land: Distribution and Function in Reclamation of Mined Land Ecosystems
		1.1	 Introduction
		1.2	 Microbial Diversity in Mine Spoils
		1.3	 AM Fungi
			1.3.1	 Plant Benefit from AM Symbiosis
			1.3.2	 AM Colonization
			1.3.3	 AM Spore Numbers
			1.3.4	 Diversity of AM Fungi on Mined Sites
		1.4	 Mining Subsidence and AM Fungal Communities
			1.4.1	 Aggregate Mining and AM Fungi
			1.4.2	 AM Fungi Improves Soil Structure
			1.4.3	 AM Fungal Inoculation and Habitat Restoration
		1.5	 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	2: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Attainment of Food Security
		2.1	 Introduction
		2.2	 Biology of AM Fungi
		2.3	 Ecology of AM Fungi in Tropical Environments
		2.4	 AMF Function, Environmental Modulation and Potential Applications in Agriculture
		2.5	 AMF as Moderators of Soil Functions for Sustainable Agriculture
		2.6	 AM Fungi for Improving Agricultural Sustainability: Future Direction
		2.7	 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	3: Impact of Environmental Gases on Mycorrhizal Symbiosis and Its Influence on Ecosystem Functioning Under the Current Climate Change Scenario
		3.1	 Introduction
		3.2	 AM Fungi and Their Diversification
		3.3	 AM Fungi and Its Key Functions
			3.3.1	 Heavy Metals
			3.3.2	 Temperature
		3.4	 AM Fungi in Plant Disease Management
		3.5	 Elevated CO2 and Its Impact on Mycorrhiza and Mycorrhization
			3.5.1	 Effect of CO2 on Plant Biomass Colonized by Mycorrhizal Fungi
		3.6	 Elevated O3 and Its Impact on Mycorrhiza and Mycorrhization
		3.7	 O3 and Its Effect on Total Biomass
		3.8	 Elevated SO2 and Its Impact on Mycorrhiza and Mycorrhization
		3.9	 Conclusions and Future Outlooks
		References
	4: Propagation of Mycorrhizal Fungi and Their Strength in Plant Health Ameliorations
		4.1	 Introduction
		4.2	 Morphological Features of AM Fungi
		4.3	 Collection of Soil Samples
		4.4	 Isolation and Characterization
			4.4.1	 AM Fungi Sampling
		4.5	 Enumeration of AM Fungal Spore Population
			4.5.1	 Spore Extraction
		4.6	 Morphological Identification of АМ Fungi
		4.7	 Spore Characterization
			4.7.1	 Visualization of Mycorrhizal Fungi
			4.7.2	 Protocol as Described by Phillips and Hayman (1970)
		4.8	 Molecular Approaches in the Identification of Mycorrhizal Fungi
			4.8.1	 Advancement in Identification of Mycorrhizal Fungi
			4.8.2	 Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT)
			4.8.3	 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
			4.8.4	 Recent Advances in the Identification of AM Fungi
			4.8.5	 RAPD: Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA
			4.8.6	 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR RFLP)
			4.8.7	 T-RFLP: Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
			4.8.8	 DGGE: Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis and TGGE: Temperature Gradient Gel Electrophoresis
			4.8.9	 Illumina MiSeq for the Identification of AM Fungi
		4.9	 AM Fungi Propagation
			4.9.1	 Methodology for Mass Propagation
			4.9.2	 Substrate-Based Inoculum Propagation
			4.9.3	 Nutrient Film Technique
			4.9.4	 Aeroponic Culture
			4.9.5	 Root Organ Culture
			4.9.6	 Substrate-Free Production System
		4.10	 Significance of Plant Symbionts (AM Fungi) in Plant Health Improvement in Pathogen-Induced Environment
			4.10.1	 Competition
			4.10.2	 Systemic-Induced Resistance (SIR), Phytoalexins, and Phytoanticipins
			4.10.3	 Organic molecules behaviour
		4.11	 AM Fungi in Disease Management Caused by Phytopathogenic Fungi
			4.11.1	 AM Fungi in Bacterial Disease Management
			4.11.2	 AM Fungi for the Management of Phytoparasitic Nematodes
			4.11.3	 Major Challenges in the Application of AM Fungi in Plant Disease Management
		4.12	 Conclusions and Future Outlooks
		References
Part II: Applications of Mycorrhizal Fungi
	5: Root Exudates and Their Importance in Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis and Nutrients Navigation from Inaccessible Soil: An Efficient Mediator of Mineral Acquisition in Nutrient Deprived Soil
		5.1	 Introduction
		5.2	 Root Exudates
		5.3	 Plant Nutrient Stress and Root Exudation
		5.4	 Propagules of AM Fungi
		5.5	 Establishment of the Symbiosis
		5.6	 Role of Root Exudates in Mycorrhization
			5.6.1	 AM Induced Changes in Root Exudates
			5.6.2	 AM-Mediated Changes in Rhizosphere Microflora
		5.7	 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	6: Advancement in Mycorrhizal Fungi-Based Sustainable Plant Disease Management
		6.1	 Introduction
		6.2	 Effects of AM Fungi in Improving Soil Properties
		6.3	 AM Fungi and Plant Yield
		6.4	 AM Fungi in Crop Protection
			6.4.1	 Mycorrhiza Mediated Fungal Disease Management
			6.4.2	 Mycorrhiza Mediated Bacterial Disease Management
			6.4.3	 AM Fungi Mediated Nematode Management
			6.4.4	 AM Fungi Mediated Insect Pest Management
			6.4.5	 Mechanisms Involved in AM Fungi Plant Disease Management
			6.4.6	 Mechanisms Implicated behind Mycorrhiza Mediated Disease Resistance
		6.5	 Modification of Host Plant Root System
			6.5.1	 Mechanism of Competition
			6.5.2	 Activation of Host Plant Defence System
		6.6	 AM Fungi Application in Commercial Agriculture
		6.7	 Conclusions and Future Outlooks
		References
	7: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi: A Potential Agent for Phytonematodes Management in Diverse Agro-climatic Zones
		7.1	 Introduction
			7.1.1	 Ectomycorrhiza (ECM)
			7.1.2	 Endomycorrhiza (EDM)
			7.1.3	 Characteristics of AMF
		7.2	 Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR)
		7.3	 Interaction of AM Fungi with Plant Parasitic Nematodes
			7.3.1	 AM Fungi and Their Impact on Root-Knot Nematodes
			7.3.2	 AM Fungi and Their Impact on Cyst Nematodes
			7.3.3	 AM Fungi and Their Impact on Root Lesion Nematodes
			7.3.4	 Effect of AM Fungi on Reniform Nematode
		7.4	 Commercialization of AM Fungi
			7.4.1	 (I) Conventional Methods
			7.4.2	 (II) In Vitro Method/Root Organ Culture Method
			7.4.3	 (III) On Farm Production
		7.5	 Summary and Future Outlooks
		References
Part III: Case Studies/Reports
	8: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Technology in Sustainable Agriculture: Current Knowledge and Challenges in Agroforestry
		8.1	 Introduction
		8.2	 AM Technology in Sustainable Agriculture and Agroforestry
		8.3	 Use of AM Technology in Sustainable Agriculture and Agroforestry
			8.3.1	 An Overview of the Market and Products
			8.3.2	 Inoculation Strategies and Application Technology
				8.3.2.1	 Mycorrhizal fungi in transplanted crops
				8.3.2.2	 In-Furrow Application Method
				8.3.2.3	 Application of mycorrhizal fungi as a seed coating
				8.3.2.4	 Mycorrhizal pellets
				8.3.2.5	 Fluid drilling in mycorrhiza inoculations
				8.3.2.6	 Pre-cropping
		8.4	 Commercialization of AM Technology
			8.4.1	 Soil-Based Systems
			8.4.2	 Aeroponic Culture
			8.4.3	 Root-Organ Culture Technique (Monoxenic Culture)
			8.4.4	 Technique of Nutrient Film (NFT)
			8.4.5	 Inoculum Made of Polymers
			8.4.6	 Integrated Method
		8.5	 Challenges to Commercial Use
		8.6	 Formulation of AM Technology
		8.7	 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	9: Unraveling the Mysteries of Mycorrhiza-Plant Interactions: Mechanisms of Protection and Ecological Factors Influencing Symbioses
		9.1	 Introduction
		9.2	 Interactions Between Mycorrhizal Associations and Root Exudates
			9.2.1	 Modulation in Root Architecture
			9.2.2	 Nutrient Uptake and Accumulation
		9.3	 AM Fungi and Other Beneficial Microbe Interactions
		9.4	 Interplay Between AM Fungi and Host Plants
			9.4.1	 Direct Competition
			9.4.2	 Competition for Infection Sites
			9.4.3	 Competition for Host Photosynthates
			9.4.4	 Antagonism
		9.5	 AM Fungi-Mediated Plant Disease Resistance
			9.5.1	 AM Fungi in Nematodal Disease Management
			9.5.2	 AM Fungi in Fungal Disease Management
			9.5.3	 AM Fungi in Bacterial Diseases
		9.6	 Factors Affecting Successful Mycorrhization
			9.6.1	 Environmental Factors
			9.6.2	 Cultural Factors
			9.6.3	 Surrounding Microbiome
		9.7	 Conclusions and Future Outlooks
		References
	10: Influence of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Soil Health Amelioration and Plant Fitness Under Hostile Environment
		10.1	 Introduction
		10.2	 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi: A Good Plant Symbionts
		10.3	 AM Fungi and Their Role in Stressor Ameliorations and Plant Fitness
			10.3.1	 AM Fungi as Alleviator of Biotic Stressors
				10.3.1.1	 Mycorrhizal Fungi and Their Effects on Plant Nematode Management
				10.3.1.2	 Fungal Disease Management Through AM Fungi
				10.3.1.3	 Bacterial Disease Management Through AM Fungi
				10.3.1.4	 Viral Disease Management Through AM Fungi Application
			10.3.2	 AM Fungi as Alleviator of Abiotic Stressors
				10.3.2.1	 AM Fungi and Its Significance in Heavy Metals Amelioration
					Adsorption and Sequestration
					Precipitation
					Complexation
					Bioaccumulation
				10.3.2.2	 AM Fungi and Its Role in Different Environmental Factors (Temperature, Soil Texture, Sulphur Dioxide and Other Environmental Gas Elevation)
					AM Fungi and Temperature Reduction
					AM Fungi and Soil Texture
		10.4	 Conclusions and Future Outlooks
		References