Multifunctional And Targeted Theranostic Nanomedicines: Formulation, Design And Applications

Preface
Contents
1: Functionalized Targeted Theranostic Nanomedicines
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Design of Nanotheranostic
	1.3 Therapy in Nanotheranostic
		1.3.1 Drug Therapy
		1.3.2 Gene Delivery
		1.3.3 Photodynamic Therapy
		1.3.4 Photothermal Therapy
	1.4 Nanotheranostic for Imaging
		1.4.1 Optical Imaging
		1.4.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		1.4.3 Computed Tomography
		1.4.4 Ultrasound Imaging
	1.5 Different Types of Nanotheranostics
		1.5.1 Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
		1.5.2 Gold
		1.5.3 Carbon Nanomaterials
		1.5.4 Graphene Oxide
		1.5.5 Polymeric Nanoparticles
		1.5.6 Polymeric Micelles
		1.5.7 Liposome
	1.6 Regulatory Aspects
	1.7 Conclusion
	References
2: Designing of Smartly Functionalized Theranostic Nanomedicines
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Approaches for Functionalization of Theranostic Nanoparticles
		2.2.1 Functionalization of Nanoparticles Using Small Molecule Ligands
		2.2.2 Bio-functionalization of Nanoparticles
			2.2.2.1 Nucleic Acids
			2.2.2.2 Enzymes
			2.2.2.3 Peptides
			2.2.2.4 Carbohydrates
			2.2.2.5 Antibodies
	2.3 Methods for Functionalization of Nanoparticles
		2.3.1 Covalent Strategies
			2.3.1.1 Click-Chemistry Reaction
			2.3.1.2 EDC Coupling Reaction
			2.3.1.3 Maleimide Coupling
		2.3.2 Non-covalent Strategies
			2.3.2.1 Ionic Interaction
			2.3.2.2 Hydrophobic Coupling
	2.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
3: Theranostic Applications of Functionalized Vesicular Carriers
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Functionalized Nanovesicular Carriers
	3.3 Liposomes
	3.4 Niosomes
	3.5 Exosomes
	3.6 Disease-Based Study of Theranostic Vesicular Carriers
	3.7 Vesicular Carrier System as Imaging Agents
	3.8 Toxicity Concerns Related to Nanovesicular Carrier Systems
	3.9 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
4: Theranostic Applications of Functionalized Polymeric Nanoparticles
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Composition
	4.3 Types of Theranostic Polymers
		4.3.1 Internal Stimuli
		4.3.2 External Stimuli
	4.4 Theranostic Applications of Functionalized Polymeric Nanoparticles
		4.4.1 Application in Bioimaging
		4.4.2 Optical Imaging
		4.4.3 Ultrasound Imaging
		4.4.4 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		4.4.5 Photoacoustic Imaging
		4.4.6 X-Ray Computed Tomography
		4.4.7 Radionuclide Imaging
		4.4.8 Radioactive Polymeric Nanoparticles for Imaging and Therapy
		4.4.9 Application in Infectious Diseases
	4.5 Conclusion
	References
5: Functionalized Metallic Nanoparticles: Theranostic Applications
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Metal Nanoparticles
		5.2.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles
		5.2.2 Gold Nanoparticles
		5.2.3 Silver Nanoparticles
		5.2.4 Up-conversion Nanoparticles
	5.3 Functionalization of Metal Nanoparticles
		5.3.1 Surface Coating with Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles
		5.3.2 Functionalization with Stimuli-Responsive Polymer
	5.4 Properties of Metal Nanoparticles
		5.4.1 Physical Properties
		5.4.2 Chemical Properties
	5.5 Theranostic Applications of Metal Nanoparticles
		5.5.1 Drug Delivery
		5.5.2 Imaging
	5.6 Conclusions
	References
6: Functionalized Lipidic Nanoparticles: Smartly Engineered Lipidic Theragnostic Nanomedicines
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 Overview on Smartly Engineered Nanolipid-Based Theranostics
		6.1.2 Surface Functionalization Approaches for Programmed Theranostics
			6.1.2.1 PEGylation
			6.1.2.2 Ligand Functionalized Nanolipidic Theranostics
	6.2 Nanolipidic Carriers as Theranostic Systems
		6.2.1 Liposomes
		6.2.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN)
		6.2.3 Lipid Nanoparticles (LNPs) or Lipid-Drug Conjugates
		6.2.4 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs)
	6.3 Biofate of Functionalized Nanolipidic Theranostics
		6.3.1 Impact of Particle Size
		6.3.2 Impact of Surface Charge
		6.3.3 Impact of Hydrophobicity
	6.4 Limitations and Challenges of Nanolipidic Theranostics
	6.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
7: Functionalized Nanoemulsions: Could Be a Promising Approach for Theranostic Applications
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Functionalized Nanoemulsion: Recent Development and Drug Delivery Opportunity
	7.3 Functionalized Nanoemulsions Utilized for Theranostic Applications: Contemporary Research
		7.3.1 Utilization of Theranostic Nanoemulsion in Different Conditions of Cancers
		7.3.2 Utilization of Theranostic Nanoemulsion in Inflammatory Conditions of Disease
	7.4 Author Opinion and Future Directions
	References
8: Functionalized Dendrimers: Promising Nanocarriers for Theranostic Applications
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Dendrimer-Based Molecular Imaging
		8.2.1 Dendrimer-Based MRI
		8.2.2 Dendrimer-Based CT
		8.2.3 Dendrimer-Based SPECT/PET
		8.2.4 Dendrimer-Based FOI
	8.3 Application of Dendrimer-Based Theranostic System
		8.3.1 Nanotheranostic-Assisted Chemotherapy
		8.3.2 Nanotheranostic-Assisted Photothermal Therapy
		8.3.3 Nanotheranostic-Assisted Gene Therapy
		8.3.4 Nanotheranostic-Assisted Photodynamic Therapy
	8.4 Conclusion
	References
9: Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene Oxide, Fullerenes, and Nanodiamonds: Emerging Theranostic Nanomedicines
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials and Theragnosis
	9.3 Synthesis and Functionalization of Carbon Nanomaterials
		9.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes
			9.3.1.1 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs)
			9.3.1.2 Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs)
		9.3.2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
			9.3.2.1 Arc Discharge Techniques
			9.3.2.2 Laser Ablation Method
			9.3.2.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition
			9.3.2.4 Synthesis of CNTs by Thermal Decomposition Method
		9.3.3 Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes
		9.3.4 Synthesis and Functionalization of Graphene Oxide
		9.3.5 Synthesis and Functionalization of Fullerene
		9.3.6 Synthesis and Functionalization of Carbon Nanodiamond
	9.4 Theranostic Application of Carbon-Based Nanocarriers
		9.4.1 Carbon Nanotubes
		9.4.2 Graphene
		9.4.3 Fullerenes
		9.4.4 Carbon Nanodiamonds
	9.5 Future Outlook
	References
10: Quantum Dots: Functionalization and Theranostic Applications
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Properties of Quantum Dots
	10.3 Methods of Preparation
		10.3.1 Top-Down Approaches
			10.3.1.1 Electrochemical/Chemical Oxidation
			10.3.1.2 Laser Ablation
			10.3.1.3 Ultrasonic Treatment
			10.3.1.4 Arc Discharge (ACD)
		10.3.2 Bottom-up Approaches
			10.3.2.1 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Synthesis
			10.3.2.2 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis
			10.3.2.3 Thermal Decomposition
			10.3.2.4 Pyrolysis
	10.4 Functionalization of Quantum Dots
		10.4.1 Non-covalent Binding
		10.4.2 Covalent Binding
			10.4.2.1 Conjugation with Carboxyl-Containing QDs
			10.4.2.2 Conjugation with Amine-Containing QDs
			10.4.2.3 Conjugation with Hydroxyl- or Aldehyde-Containing QDs
			10.4.2.4 Conjugation with Thiol-Containing QDs
	10.5 Role of Quantum Dots in Drug Delivery
		10.5.1 Cancer
		10.5.2 Neurodegenerative Disorders
			10.5.2.1 Alzheimer´s Disease (AD)
			10.5.2.2 Parkinson´s Disease
		10.5.3 Infectious Diseases
		10.5.4 Gene Delivery
	10.6 Safety and Toxicity Perspectives of Quantum Dots
	10.7 Clinical Status of Quantum Dots
	10.8 Current Challenges and Future Aspects
	10.9 Conclusion
	References
11: Functional Nanogels and Hydrogels: A Multipronged Nanotherapy in Drug Delivery and Imaging
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Hydrogels
		11.2.1 Hydrogel Classification
			11.2.1.1 Source
			11.2.1.2 Configuration
			11.2.1.3 Depending on the Cross-Linking Type
			11.2.1.4 Based on the Electrical Charge
			11.2.1.5 Based on the Method of Preparations
		11.2.2 Technologies Adopted in Hydrogel Synthesis
			11.2.2.1 Inverse-Suspension Polymerization
			11.2.2.2 Graft Polymerization
			11.2.2.3 Bulk Polymerization
			11.2.2.4 Solution Polymerization or Cross-Linking
			11.2.2.5 Suspension Polymerization or Inverse-Suspension Polymerization
			11.2.2.6 Grafting to a Support
			11.2.2.7 Polymerization by Irradiation
		11.2.3 Properties of Hydrogel
		11.2.4 Theranostic Applications of Hydrogels
			11.2.4.1 Active and Passive Drug Delivery
			11.2.4.2 Elimination of Dyes and Heavy Metal Ions (Chelating Agent)
			11.2.4.3 Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering
			11.2.4.4 Contact Lenses
			11.2.4.5 Sensors for pH
			11.2.4.6 Biosensors
			11.2.4.7 Spinal Cord Damage Treated with Injectable Hydrogel
			11.2.4.8 Supercapacitor Hydrogels
	11.3 Nanogels
		11.3.1 Nanogel Synthesis Methodologies
		11.3.2 Nanogels´ Properties
			11.3.2.1 Biocompatibility and Degradability
			11.3.2.2 Elevated Drug Encapsulation Potential
			11.3.2.3 Particle Size
			11.3.2.4 Solubility
			11.3.2.5 Electromobility
			11.3.2.6 Colloidal Consistency
			11.3.2.7 Non-immunologic Response
			11.3.2.8 Others
		11.3.3 Categories of Nanogel
			11.3.3.1 On the Basis of Response
				Nonresponsive Nanogels
				Stimuli-Responsive Nanogel
			11.3.3.2 On the Basis of Linkage
				Physically Cross-Linked Nanogel
				Liposome-Modified Nanogels
				Micellar Nanogels
				Hybrid Nanogel
				Chemically Cross-Linked Nanogel
		11.3.4 Nanogel Uses in Theranostics
			11.3.4.1 Nanogel as Therapeutic Drug Transporter
			11.3.4.2 Nanogel as Imaging and Diagnosing Tool
	11.4 Conclusion
	References
12: Theranostic Applications of Functionalized Exosomes
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Origin of Exosomes
		12.2.1 Macrophage Derived
		12.2.2 Tumor Derived
		12.2.3 Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Derived
	12.3 Isolation of Exosomes
		12.3.1 Ultracentrifugation
		12.3.2 Size-Based Filtration
		12.3.3 Polymer Precipitation
		12.3.4 Immunoaffinity Capture-Based Isolation
		12.3.5 Microfluidic-Based Separation
		12.3.6 Isolation Using Commercial Kits
	12.4 Characterization of Exosomes
		12.4.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
		12.4.2 Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis (NTA)
		12.4.3 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
		12.4.4 Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)
		12.4.5 Resistive Pulse Sensing (RPS)
		12.4.6 Flow Cytometry
	12.5 Functionalization
		12.5.1 Click Chemistry/Covalent Modification
		12.5.2 Genetic Engineering
	12.6 Applications
		12.6.1 Theranostic in Brain Disorders
		12.6.2 Theranostic in Cancer
		12.6.3 Theranostic in CVS
		12.6.4 Exosomes in Skin
	12.7 Conclusion
	References
13: Theranostic Applications of Functionalized Polymeric Micelles
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 Hydrophilic Block
		13.1.2 Core Shell
	13.2 Micelle Stability and Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC)
	13.3 Advantages of Micelles
	13.4 Primary Classification of Micelles
		13.4.1 Lipid-Based Micelles
		13.4.2 The Reverse Micelles
		13.4.3 Polymer-Based Micelles
	13.5 Polysaccharide-Based Drug Delivery System of Polymeric Micelles
	13.6 Features of Polymeric Micelles
		13.6.1 Applications of Polymeric Micelles
		13.6.2 Enhancement of Bioavailability of Polymeric Micelles
			13.6.2.1 Protection of Drugs from GIT
			13.6.2.2 Controlled Release of Drug
			13.6.2.3 Increasing the Drug Residence Time in GIT
		13.6.3 Use of Polymeric Micelles
			13.6.3.1 Targeted Drug Delivery
			13.6.3.2 Colonic Drug Delivery
			13.6.3.3 Ocular Targeted Drug Delivery
			13.6.3.4 Targeted Cancer Treatment
			13.6.3.5 Diagnostics of Polymeric Micelles
	13.7 Theranostics
	13.8 Theranostic Use of Polymeric Micelles in Various Diseases
		13.8.1 Cancer Theranostics
			13.8.1.1 Passive Targeting
				Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) Effect
			13.8.1.2 Active Targeting
		13.8.2 Theranostic Applications of Polymeric Micelles in Cancer
			13.8.2.1 In Hepatocellular Carcinoma
			13.8.2.2 In Breast Cancer
			13.8.2.3 In Colorectal Cancer
			13.8.2.4 Lung Carcinoma
		13.8.3 Biodegradable Polymeric Micelles in Cancer Theranostic
		13.8.4 Multifunctional Micelles in Cancer Theranostic
		13.8.5 Theranostic Applications of Polymeric Micelles in Diabetes
		13.8.6 Theranostic Applications of Polymeric Micelles in Neurodegenerative Disorder
		13.8.7 Theranostic Application of Polymeric Micelles in AIDS
		13.8.8 Theranostic Application of Polymeric Micelles in Atherosclerosis
		13.8.9 Theranostic Application of Polymeric Micelles in Arthritis
	13.9 Diagnostic and Imaging Application of Micelles
		13.9.1 Optical Imaging
		13.9.2 Fluorescent Imaging
		13.9.3 The Magnetic Resonance Contrast Agent
		13.9.4 X-Ray Computed Tomography
		13.9.5 Imaging and Radionuclide-Based Therapy Agents
	13.10 Polymeric Micelles as a Prodrug Theranostic
	13.11 Polymeric Micelles in Clinical Trial till 05/04/2022
	13.12 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
14: Functionalized Nanocrystals and Theranostic Applications
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Types of Nanocrystals
		14.2.1 Chitin and Chitosan
		14.2.2 Quantum Dot
		14.2.3 Colloidal Nanocrystals
		14.2.4 Cellulose Nanocrystal and Nanofibres
	14.3 Preparation of Nanocrystals
		14.3.1 Top-Down Techniques
			14.3.1.1 Media Milling (Nanocrystals)
			14.3.1.2 High-Pressure Homogenization (IDD-Ps, DissoCubess, and Nanopure)
		14.3.2 Bottom-up Techniques
	14.4 Stability
		14.4.1 Functionalization of Nanocrystals
	14.5 Theranostic Applications of Nanocrystals in Various Diseases.
		14.5.1 Cancer
		14.5.2 Cardiovascular Disease
			14.5.2.1 Atherosclerosis
			14.5.2.2 Thrombosis
			14.5.2.3 Myocardial Infarction
			14.5.2.4 Vascular Injury and Restenosis
		14.5.3 Neurodegenerative Disorders
			14.5.3.1 Alzheimer´s Disease (AD)
			14.5.3.2 Parkinson´s Disease (PD)
			14.5.3.3 Prion Disease
	14.6 Advantages of Theranostic Nanocrystals
	14.7 Challenges and Future Goals
	References
15: Theranostics Applications of Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Synthesis and Functionalization of MNPs
		15.2.1 Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs)
		15.2.2 Coated MNPs
		15.2.3 MNPs with Improved Magnetic Response
		15.2.4 Combination of Magnetic and Au NPs
		15.2.5 Monodisperse MNPs
		15.2.6 Controlling Surface Functionality Via Surface-Initiated Polymerization
	15.3 Applications of Theragnostic Nanoparticles
		15.3.1 Applications in Cancer
		15.3.2 Theranostics Applications of Magnetic Nanoparticles in Neurodegenerative Disorders
		15.3.3 Treatment of Secondary Interventions and Infectious Diseases
		15.3.4 MNPs and Targeted Drug Delivery
			15.3.4.1 Modification for Tumor Targeting
			15.3.4.2 Therapeutic Viruses
			15.3.4.3 Nucleic Acid and Protein Delivery
			15.3.4.4 Cell-Based Therapies
		15.3.5 Targeted Magnetic Nanoparticle for Multimodal Diagnostics
		15.3.6 Imaging
			15.3.6.1 Photoacoustic Imaging
			15.3.6.2 Fluorescence Imaging
	15.4 Recent Medicinal Applications of Gold-Coated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
	15.5 Conclusion
	References
16: Functionalized Mesoporous Silica-Based Nanoparticles for Theranostic Applications
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Basic Structure and Properties
	16.3 Introduction of Mesoporous Families
		16.3.1 M41S Family
			16.3.1.1 MCM-41
			16.3.1.2 MCM-48
			16.3.1.3 SBA-15
			16.3.1.4 SBA-16
		16.3.2 PMO Family
		16.3.3 ORMOSIL Family
		16.3.4 Hollow Family (H-MSN)
	16.4 Composition and Method of Preparation
		16.4.1 Sol-Gel Method
		16.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Technique
		16.4.3 Chemical Etching Technique
		16.4.4 Template-Assisted Technique
			16.4.4.1 Hard Templating Method
			16.4.4.2 Soft Templating Method
		16.4.5 Effect of Physical Parameters on the Formation of MSNs
	16.5 Surface Modification of MSNs
		16.5.1 Co-Condensation Method
		16.5.2 Post-Grafting Method
		16.5.3 Imprint Coating Strategy
			16.5.3.1 Physical Targeting or Passive Targeting
				Composition and Surface Charge
				Size and Shape
			16.5.3.2 Functionalization of MSNs for Active Targeting
				Functionalized MSNs with Antibodies
				Functionalized MSNs with Peptides and Transferrins
				Functionalized MSNs with Aptamers
				Functionalized MSNs with Vitamins
				Functionalized MSNs for Stimuli-Sensitive Drug Delivery
	16.6 Stimuli-Responsive Drug Release
		16.6.1 Internal Stimuli-Responsive Drug Delivery
			16.6.1.1 pH as Endogenous Stimuli
			16.6.1.2 Redox Potential as Internal Stimuli
			16.6.1.3 Enzymatic Degradation as Internal Stimuli
		16.6.2 External Stimuli-Responsive Drug Delivery
			16.6.2.1 Thermoresponsive as Stimuli
			16.6.2.2 ATP-Responsive Drug Delivery
			16.6.2.3 H2O2-Responsive Drug Delivery
			16.6.2.4 Magnetic Field-Responsive Drug Delivery
	16.7 Therapeutic Applications of MSNs
		16.7.1 Neurodegenerative Disorder
		16.7.2 Cancer Therapy
		16.7.3 MSN-Mediated Nanofiber Scaffolds
	16.8 Theranostic Applications
		16.8.1 Diagnostic Application of MSNs
		16.8.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		16.8.3 Optical Imaging
		16.8.4 Other Imaging Modalities
	16.9 Conclusions and Future Outlook
	References