Mountain Landscapes in Transition: Effects of Land Use and Climate Change

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Contributors
1 The World’s Mountains in the Anthropocene
	Abstract
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Recent Climate Change and Its Effects in Major Mountain Systems of the World
		1.2.1 Climatic Changes
			1.2.1.1 General Overview
			1.2.1.2 Regional Overview
		1.2.2 Impacts on the Cryosphere and Hydrosphere
			1.2.2.1 General Overview
			1.2.2.2 Regional Overview
		1.2.3 Biotic Responses
			1.2.3.1 General Overview
			1.2.3.2 Regional Overview
	1.3 Effects of Land Use Changes in Major Mountain Systems of the World
		1.3.1 General Overview
		1.3.2 Regional Overview
	1.4 Conclusions
	References
Climate Change and Response Processes of Mountain Environments
2 Markers of Climate Change: Analysing Extreme Temperature Indices Over the Himalayan Mountains and Adjoining Punjab Plains
	Abstract
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Study Region
	2.3 Database and Methodology
		2.3.1 Database
		2.3.2 Methodology
	2.4 Results and Discussion
		2.4.1 Intensity Indices
			2.4.1.1 Hottest Day (TXx)
			2.4.1.2 Warmest Night (TNx)
			2.4.1.3 Coldest Day (TXn)
			2.4.1.4 Coldest Night (TNn)
		2.4.2 Frequency Indices
			2.4.2.1 Summer Days (SU25)
			2.4.2.2 Tropical Nights (TR20)
	2.5 Conclusions
	References
3 Spatial Variations and Long-Term Trends (1901–2013) of Rainfall Across Uttarakhand Himalaya, India
	Abstract
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Data and Methods
		3.2.1 Study Area
		3.2.2 Database and Methodology
			3.2.2.1 Trend Analysis
	3.3 Results
		3.3.1 Spatial Distribution of Rainfall
		3.3.2 Spatial Patterns of Rainfall Trends
			3.3.2.1 Rainfall Trends for 1901–1990
			3.3.2.2 Rainfall Trends for 1901–2013
			3.3.2.3 Rainfall Variability
	3.4 Discussion
	3.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
4 Spatio-Temporal Heterogeneity in Glaciers Response Across Western Himalaya
	Abstract
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Western Himalaya (WH)
		4.2.1 Glacier Area and Length
		4.2.2 Glacier Mass Balance
			4.2.2.1 Glaciological Method
			4.2.2.2 Geodetic Method
			4.2.2.3 Glacier Mass Balance Modelling
		4.2.3 Surface Velocity
	4.3 Comparison of Glacier Fluctuation with Other Parts of Himalaya
	4.4 Conclusion
	References
5 Temporal Variability of the Satopanth Glacier Facies at Sub-pixel Scale, Garhwal Himalaya, India
	Abstract
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Study Area
	5.3 Datasets and Study Techniques
	5.4 Results
	5.5 Discussion
	5.6 Conclusions
	References
6 Anticipated Shifting of Thermal and Moisture Boundary Under Changing Climate Across Nepal
	Abstract
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Study Area
	6.3 Data and Methods
		6.3.1 Data
		6.3.2 Methods
	6.4 Results and Discussions
		6.4.1 Anticipated Change in Precipitation and Temperature
		6.4.2 Anticipated Change in Thermal Zones
		6.4.3 Anticipated Change in Moisture Zones
		6.4.4 Discussions
	6.5 Conclusion
	References
7 Quantifying Uncertainties in Climate Change Projection and Its Impact on Water Availability in the Thuli Bheri River Basin, Nepal
	Abstract
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Study Area
	7.3 Data and Methodology
		7.3.1 Data Collection
		7.3.2 Climate Model
		7.3.3 Bias Correction and Uncertainty Quantification
		7.3.4 Hydrological Modeling
		7.3.5 Calibration and Validation
	7.4 Results
		7.4.1 Bias Correction of Precipitation
		7.4.2 Bias Correction of Temperature
		7.4.3 Future Annual Precipitation
		7.4.4 Future Annual Temperature
		7.4.5 SWAT Model Calibration and Validation
		7.4.6 Precipitation Uncertainty
		7.4.7 Temperature Uncertainty
		7.4.8 Discharge Uncertainty
	7.5 Discussion
	7.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
8 Decreasing Water Availability as a Threat for Traditional Irrigation-Based Land-Use Systems in the Mustang Himalaya/Nepal
	Abstract
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Study Area Mustang District
	8.3 Evidences of Environmental Change in the Mustang Himalaya
	8.4 Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Local Land-Use Systems and Communities
	8.5 Conclusions
	References
9 Glaciers, Climate and People: Holocene Transitions in the Stubai Valley
	Abstract
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Study Area
	9.3 Material and Methods
	9.4 Results
		9.4.1 Glaciers and Rock Glaciers
		9.4.2 Climate Change
		9.4.3 Population and Settlement History
		9.4.4 Traffic
		9.4.5 Land Use
		9.4.6 Natural Disasters
	9.5 Discussion and Conclusion: Past, Present and Future Transitions
	Authors Contributions
	References
10 Environmental and Socio-Economic Consequences of Recent Mountain Glacier Fluctuations in Norway
	Abstract
	10.1 Introduction—The Importance of Mountain Glaciers in a Global Context
	10.2 Mountain Glaciers in Norway
	10.3 Pre-Recent History of Mountain Glaciers in Norway
	10.4 Mountain Glacier Fluctuations in Norway—From the Twentieth Century to Present
		10.4.1 The General Scene
		10.4.2 North Norway (Regions North and Central)
		10.4.3 South Norway (Regions South Maritime and Continental)
	10.5 Predictions and Scenarios for Mountain Glaciers in Norway
	10.6 Geomorphological Implications of Mountain Glacier Retreat in Norway
		10.6.1 Paraglacial Processes and Glacier-Related Geomorphological Hazards in Norway
		10.6.2 Glacier Lake Outburst Floods and Potential Glacier-Related Hazards in Norway
	10.7 The Impact of Mountain Glacier Retreat on the Ecosystems in Norway
	10.8 The Impact of Mountain Glacier Retreat on the Socio-Economy in Norway
	10.9 Conclusion
	References
11 Paraglacial Timescale and Sediment Fluxes for Hillslope Land Systems in the Northern Appalachian Mountains of Eastern Canada
	Abstract
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Geographical Settings
		11.2.1 Mass-Wasting Processes in the Northern Gaspé Peninsula
	11.3 Methodology
		11.3.1 Calculation of the H0/Hi Ratio
		11.3.2 Radiocarbon Dating
		11.3.3 Estimation of Rock Glacier Formation Volume and Sediment Flux
	11.4 Results
		11.4.1 Morphometric Characteristics of Hillslope Processes
		11.4.2 Mid- to Long-Term Sediment Fluxes
		11.4.3 Sediment Volumes and Fluxes Related to Rock Glacier Formation
	11.5 Discussion
		11.5.1 Discrepancies Between Mass-Wasting Processes
		11.5.2 Long-Term Evolution of Talus Slopes
	11.6 Conclusion
	References
12 Distance from Retreating Snowfields Influences Alpine Plant Functional Traits at Glacier National Park, Montana
	Abstract
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Study Area
		12.2.1 Site Descriptions of Snowfields at Glacier National Park
	12.3 Materials and Methods
		12.3.1 Transects and Sampling
		12.3.2 Plant Functional Traits
		12.3.3 Statistics
	12.4 Results
		12.4.1 The Distribution of Snowfield Plant Species and Their Functional Traits Along the Gradient of Distance from Snowfields
		12.4.2 The Distribution of Snowfield Plant Species and Their Functional Traits Close to the Snow
		12.4.3 The Distribution of Snowfield Plant Species and their Functional Traits Away from the Snow
		12.4.4 Differences in the Distribution of Snowfield Plant Species and their Functional Traits Among Snowfields
	12.5 Discussion of Snowfield Plant Species and Functional Traits
		12.5.1 Context and Significance
		12.5.2 Long-Term Monitoring of Alpine Ecosystems
	12.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
13 Environmental Drivers of Species Composition and Tree Species Density of a Near-Natural Central Himalayan Treeline Ecotone: Consequences for the Response to Climate Change
	Abstract
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Material and Methods
		13.2.1 Study Area
		13.2.2 Data Collection
		13.2.3 Data Analyses
	13.3 Results
		13.3.1 Plant Communities and Environmental Conditions
		13.3.2 Explanation of Variation in Tree Species Density
	13.4 Discussion
		13.4.1 Species Composition Along the Elevational Gradient
		13.4.2 Vegetation–Environment Relationships
		13.4.3 Responsiveness of Community Patterns and Tree Species Density to Climate Warming
	13.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
14 Modelling the Ecological Niche of a Treeline Tree Species (Betula utilis) in the Himalayas—A Methodological Overview
	Abstract
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Challenges and Limitations of Ecological Niche Models in High-Altitude Regions
		14.2.1 Modelling Treeline Dynamics Under Climate Change
		14.2.2 Limitations of Ecological Niche Models and Potentials of Remote Sensing Data
	14.3 Conclusions
	References
15 Conifer Growth During Warming Hiatus in the Altay-Sayan Mountain Region, Siberia
	Abstract
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Materials and Methods
		15.2.1 Study Area
		15.2.2 Materials
		15.2.3 Methods
	15.3 Results
		15.3.1 Climate Variables Dynamics
		15.3.2 EGC Area Dynamics in the Altai-Sayan Region
		15.3.3 Tree Growth Index Dynamics Within Different Elevation Belts
			15.3.3.1 Alpine Forest–Tundra Ecotone (2000–2280 m)
			15.3.3.2 High (1200–2000 m) and Middle Elevation (800–1200 m) Belts
			15.3.3.3 GI Dynamics of Old-Growth Trees Within Refugium
	15.4 Discussion
	15.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
16 Climate-Induced Fir (Abies sibirica Ledeb.) Mortality in the Siberian Mountains
	Abstract
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Materials and Methods
		16.2.1 Study Area
			16.2.1.1 Southern Siberian Mountains
			16.2.1.2 The Eastern Sayan Mountains Key-Site
		16.2.2 Materials
		16.2.3 Methods
			16.2.3.1 The Eastern Sayan Key-Site
			16.2.3.2 Gross Primary Productivity Calculations
			16.2.3.3 Fieldwork
			16.2.3.4 Dendrochronological Analysis
	16.3 Results
		16.3.1 The Eastern Sayan Mountains Key-Site
		16.3.2 Stand Mortality and GPP Dynamics
		16.3.3 Fir Trees’ Growth Index Dynamics
		16.3.4 Stands’ Mortality Within the Fir Range in Siberia
	16.4 Discussion
	16.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
17 Climate Change and Dynamics of Vegetation in the Lesser Caucasus: An Overview
	Abstract
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Database and Methodology
		17.2.1 Climate
		17.2.2 Vegetation
	17.3 Climate Change
	17.4 Results and Discussion
		17.4.1 Climate Change and Vegetation Dynamics
		17.4.2 Change in Rare Ecosystems
	17.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
18 Changing Climate Scenario in High Altitude Regions: Comparison of Observed Trends and Perceptions of Agro-Pastoralists in Darma Valley, Uttarakhand, India
	Abstract
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Methods
		18.2.1 Study Area
		18.2.2 Data Collection and Analysis
	18.3 Results and Discussion
		18.3.1 Precipitation and Temperature Trends
		18.3.2 Snow Cover Availability
		18.3.3 People’s Perceptions Towards Climate Variable
		18.3.4 Comparison of Observed Trends and People’s Perceptions
	18.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
19 Current Crisis and Future Woes: The Case of Climate Change in the Drakensberg Mountains Region of Southern Africa and Its Socio-economic Impacts in the Region
	Abstract
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Study Area
	19.3 Database and Methodology
	19.4 Results
	19.5 Discussion and Future Implication
	19.6 Conclusion
	References
Response Processes of Mountain Environments to Land Use Change
20 Assessment and Prediction of Land Use/Land Cover Changes of Beas Basin Using a Modeling Approach
	Abstract
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Study Area
	20.3 Data and Methods
		20.3.1 Land Use/Land Cover Mapping
		20.3.2 Prediction of Land Use/Land Cover
	20.4 Results and Discussion
		20.4.1 Present Scenario of LULC
		20.4.2 Changes in LULC
		20.4.3 Predicted LULC
	20.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
21 Dynamics of Land-Use/Cover Change in Mizoram, Eastern Extension of Himalaya
	Abstract
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Materials and Methods
		21.2.1 The Study Area
		21.2.2 Methodology
	21.3 Results
		21.3.1 Land-Use Pattern
		21.3.2 Land Cover Change
		21.3.3 Forest Land-Use/Cover Change
		21.3.4 Agricultural Land-Use/Cover Change
	21.4 Case Study
	21.5 Discussion and Conclusions
	References
22 Changing Scenario of Tropical Forests Due to Shifting Cultivation in the Indo-Burma Bio-Geographical Hotspot: A Study on Three Major Hill Ranges of Tripura, North-East India
	Abstract
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Study Area
	22.3 Methodology
		22.3.1 Datasets and Pre-processing
		22.3.2 Classification Scheme
		22.3.3 Detection of Altitude-Wise Shifting Cultivation Area
		22.3.4 Accuracy Assessment
		22.3.5 Change Detection
		22.3.6 Normalised Difference Vegetation Index
	22.4 Results and Discussion
		22.4.1 Accuracy Assessment
		22.4.2 Image Classification
		22.4.3 Change Detection
		22.4.4 Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
	22.5 Altitude-Wise Shifting Cultivation Area
	22.6 Conclusion and Remarks
	References
23 Urbanization in Himalaya—An Interregional Perspective to Land Use and Urban Growth Dynamics
	Abstract
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Interregional Variation in Urbanization
		23.2.1 West Versus East
		23.2.2 Altitudinal Variation
	23.3 Urbanization Impacts on Himalayan Systems
		23.3.1 Air
		23.3.2 Water
		23.3.3 Land and Soil
		23.3.4 Biodiversity
	23.4 Drivers of Urbanization in Himalaya
	23.5 Policy Gaps and Suggestions
	23.6 Conclusion
	References
24 The Changing Landscape of the Plantation Sector in the Central Highlands of Sri Lanka
	Abstract
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Study Area
	24.3 Material and Methods
	24.4 Results
		24.4.1 Historical Land-Use Change in the Central Highlands
		24.4.2 Current Land Use in the Central Highlands
		24.4.3 Changing Use of the Mountain Landscape by Plantation Companies
			24.4.3.1 Expansion of Productive Vegetative Cover Within the Plantation Landscapes
			24.4.3.2 Establishing/Improving Forest Cover in Uncultivated Areas
			24.4.3.3 Improvements in the Functional Role of Hydro Catchments
	24.5 Discussion
		24.5.1 Economic Gains
		24.5.2 Environmental Gains
	24.6 Social Gains
	24.7 Challenges and the Way Forward
		24.7.1 Technical Challenges
		24.7.2 Human-Related Challenges
		24.7.3 Way Forward
	References
25 Mountain Pastures of Qilian Shan Under Continuous Grazing: Main Environmental Gradients, Vegetation Composition and Soil Properties
	Abstract
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Methodology
		25.2.1 Study Area
		25.2.2 Sampling Design
		25.2.3 Statistical Analysis
			25.2.3.1 Classification
			25.2.3.2 Ordination
			25.2.3.3 Analysis of Variance
	25.3 Results
		25.3.1 Classification
		25.3.2 Diversity Indexes and Indicator Species Analysis (ISA)
		25.3.3 Ordination
		25.3.4 Vegetation Groups and Environmental Variables
		25.3.5 Physical Characteristics of the Soils
	25.4 Discussion
		25.4.1 Species Diversity and Grazing Impact
		25.4.2 Main Environmental Gradients
		25.4.3 Soil Properties and Interactions Between Them
		25.4.4 Soil Organic Matter
		25.4.5 Soil Nutrients
	25.5 Conclusions
	References
26 Mountain Habitats Dynamics Under Changing Grazing Management Schemes in Greece
	Abstract
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Biodiversity in Prespa National Park, Greece
	26.3 Livestock Grazing Effects on Rangeland Habitat Types
	26.4 Land Use—Grazing Management Scheme Changes
	26.5 Rangeland Conservation Projects in the Study Area
	26.6 Conclusions—Proposed Actions for Rangelands
	References
27 Landscape Dynamics in the Northwestern Mountains of the Iberian Peninsula: Case Study Ancares-Courel Mountain Range
	Abstract
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 The Exploitation System in the Eastern Mountains of Galicia: Dynamics and Historical Background
		27.2.1 Study Area: Ancares-Courel Mountain Range
		27.2.2 Agricultural-Silvicultural-Pastoral System
		27.2.3 Landscape Dynamics and Forecast
		27.2.4 Chorological and Historical Information
	27.3 Evolution and Historical Transformation in the Landscape of the Galician Eastern Mountains
		27.3.1 First Signs of Deforestation: Beginning of Agriculture
		27.3.2 Historical Development of Native Broadleaved Forests
		27.3.3 Future Perspectives: Effect for the Native Forests Conservation
	27.4 Conclusions
	References
28 History of Vegetation and Land-Use Change in the Northern Calcareous Alps (Germany/Austria)
	Abstract
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Study Area
	28.3 Late and Postglacial Vegetation History of the Northern Calcareous Alps
	28.4 Recent Vegetation Dynamics on the Zugspitzplatt
		28.4.1 Site Conditions
		28.4.2 (Site) Climate
		28.4.3 Grazing
		28.4.4 Anthropogenic Disturbance
		28.4.5 Time
		28.4.6 Long-Term Monitoring on Permanent Sample Plots
		28.4.7 Exclosure Grazing Experiment 2016 and 2017
	Acknowledgements
	References
29 Assessing the Impact of Climate Change Versus Land Use on Tree- and Forest Line Dynamics in Norway
	Abstract
	29.1 Introduction
	29.2 Material and Methods
	29.3 Results and Discussion
		29.3.1 Empirical Evidence of TFL Change in Norway
		29.3.2 Temporal Dynamics and Time-Lags
		29.3.3 Climate Versus Land Use Change
	29.4 How to Move Forward?
		29.4.1 The Degree of the Contribution of Land Use Versus Climate Change
		29.4.2 Spatial Representativeness
		29.4.3 Idiosyncrasy of Time-Lags
		29.4.4 Other Topics Important to Be Considered in Future TFL Research
	29.5 Conclusion
	References
30 Social-Ecological-Technical Misalignments Threaten Mountain Water Tower Resilience in Utah, USA
	Abstract
	30.1 Introduction
	30.2 Socio-Ecological-Technical Misalignments
		30.2.1 Water Supply and Demand—Urban-Mountain Corridor Population Growth
		30.2.2 Regional Sensitivity of Intermountain West Water Cycle to Climate Change
		30.2.3 Mountain Water Quality
		30.2.4 Stakeholder Perceptions of Mountain Water
	30.3 Adapting Mountain Water Solutions to Scale
	30.4 Conclusion
	References
31 Changing Paradigm in Transboundary Landscape Management: A Retrospect from the Hindu Kush Himalaya
	Abstract
	31.1 Introduction
	31.2 ICIMOD and Changing Paradigm
		31.2.1 Contextualization (Pre-2002)
		31.2.2 Developing Enabling Environment (2002–2008)
		31.2.3 Planning and Implementation of Landscape Framework (2009–2020)
	31.3 Implementation for Resilience Building Through Nature-Based Solutions (NbS)
	31.4 Transboundary Landscapes for Enhanced Regional Cooperation
	31.5 Emerging Challenges
		31.5.1 Climate Change Impacts
		31.5.2 Land Use Land Cover Change and Impacts
		31.5.3 Upstream–Downstream Linkages
	31.6 Lessons and Opportunities
	31.7 Conclusion
	References