Motivation Science

Welcome
	Title Page
	Copyright
	Dedication
	Preface
	Acknowledgements
	About the Authors
1: The Science of Motivation
	Introduction: The Science of Motivation
	1.1: What Is Motivation?
		1.1.1: Motivation Is Future Oriented
		1.1.2: Defining Motivation
		1.1.3: Goals and Motivation
	1.2: Why Is Motivation Important?
		1.2.1: Importance of Self-Control
		1.2.2: ProjectMe Goal
	Summary: The Science of Motivation
	Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 1
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 2
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 3
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 4
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 5
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 6
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 7
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 8
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 9
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 10
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 11
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 12
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 13
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 14
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation, question 15
		Chapter 1 Quiz: The Science of Motivation
2: Philosophical Origins of Motivation
	Introduction: Philosophical Origins of Motivation
	2.1: Ancient Greeks
		2.1.1: Plato
		2.1.2: Aristotle
		Aristotle\'s Four Causes
		Aristotle\'s Passions
		Aristotle\'s Two Types of Happiness
		2.1.3: The Stoics
	2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers
		2.2.1: Saint Augustine
		2.2.2: Saint Thomas Aquinas
		2.2.3: René Descartes
		Descartes\'s Passions
		2.2.4: Thomas Hobbes
		Hobbes\'s Theory of the Relationship Between Thoughts and Emotions
		2.2.5: John Locke
		Locke\'s Additional Contributions
		2.2.6: David Hume
	2.3: Age of Enlightenment
		2.3.1: Jeremy Bentham
		2.3.2: Immanuel Kant
		2.3.3: Arthur Schopenhauer
	Summary: Philosophical Origins of Motivation
	Shared Writing: Motivation and Hedonism
	Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 1
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 2
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 3
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 4
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 5
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 6
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 7
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 8
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 9
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 10
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 11
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 12
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 13
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 14
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation, question 15
		Chapter 2 Quiz: Philosophical Origins of Motivation
3: Psychological Origins of Motivation
	Introduction: Psychological Origins of Motivation
	3.1: Will
		3.1.1: James\'s Contributions to the Study of Will
		3.1.2: Contributions of Other Pioneers
		The Decline of Will
	3.2: Instinct
		3.2.1: Darwin’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
		3.2.2: James’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
		3.2.3: McDougall’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
		3.2.4: Alternative Perspectives of Instinct
		3.2.5: The Decline of Instincts
	3.3: Drive
		3.3.1: Freud’s Contribution to Drive
		3.3.2: Hull’s Contribution to Drive
		3.3.3: Instinct Versus Drive
	3.4: Personality
	3.5: Incentives
		Importance of Incentives
		3.5.1: Tolman’s Contribution to Incentives
	3.6: Cognition
		3.6.1: The Cognitive Revolution in Motivation
	3.7: The Fall and Rise of Motivation Science
		3.7.1: Motivation in the Modern Era
		3.7.2: Reasons for Motivation’s Resurgence
		3.7.3: The New Look of Motivation
	Summary: Psychological Origins of Motivation
	Shared Writing: Psychological Origins of Motivation
	Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 1
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 2
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 3
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 4
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 5
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 6
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 7
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 8
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 9
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 10
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 11
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 12
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 13
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 14
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation, question 15
		Chapter 3 Quiz: Psychological Origins of Motivation
4: Core Human Motives
	Introduction: Core Human Motives
	4.1: Core Motives Drive Human Behavior
		4.1.1: Physiological Needs
		4.1.2: Psychological Needs
	4.2: Criteria for Core Motives
	4.3: Self-Determination Theory
		4.3.1: SDT and Goals
		4.3.2: Do We Need All Three Motives?
		4.3.3: Criticisms of Self-Determination Theory
	4.4: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
		4.4.1: Intrinsic Motivation
		4.4.2: Extrinsic Motivation
		The Intrinsic–Extrinsic Continuum
	Summary: Core Human Motives
	Shared Writing: More Than Three Core Motives?
	Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 1
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 2
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 3
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 4
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 5
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 6
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 7
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 8
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 9
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 10
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 11
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 12
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 13
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 14
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives, question 15
		Chapter 4 Quiz: Core Human Motives
5: Autonomy
	Introduction: Autonomy
	5.1: The Need for Autonomy
		5.1.1: Panic Button Effect
		5.1.2: Is Control More Desirable Than Money?
		5.1.3: Autonomy Elicits Behaviors
		5.1.4: Autonomy Produces Positive Outcomes
		5.1.5: Autonomy Is Universal
	5.2: Attribution Theory
		5.2.1: Types of Attributions
		5.2.2: Factors That Influence Attributions
	5.3: Overjustification Effect
		5.3.1: Examples of the Overjustification Effect
		5.3.2: Why the Overjustification Effect Occurs
	5.4: Illusion of Control
		5.4.1: Choice Influences the Illusion of Control
		5.4.2: Outcome Sequence Influences the Illusion of Control
	5.5: Magical Thinking
		5.5.1: Tempting Fate
		5.5.2: Mind Control
	5.6: Reactions to Loss of Autonomy
		5.6.1: Reactance
		5.6.2: Learned Helplessness
	5.7: Desire for No Control
		5.7.1: Too Much or Too Little Choice
	Summary: Autonomy
	Shared Writing: Loss of Autonomy in Your Life
	Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 1
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 2
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 3
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 4
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 5
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 6
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 7
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 8
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 9
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 10
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 11
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 12
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 13
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 14
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy, question 15
		Chapter 5 Quiz: Autonomy
6: Competence
	Introduction: Competence
	6.1: The Need for Competence
		6.1.1: Competence Elicits Behaviors
		6.1.2: Competence Produces Positive Outcomes
		6.1.3: Competence Is Universal
	6.2: Variability in the Expression of Competence
		6.2.1: Learning Versus Performance Goals
		6.2.2: Entity Versus Incremental Beliefs
		Differing Outcomes for Entity and Incremental Beliefs
		How Praise Influences Entity and Incremental Beliefs
		6.2.3: Self-Efficacy
		Attributions and Self-Efficacy
		6.2.4: Flow
		What Causes Flow?
		Benefits of Flow
	6.3: The Role of Self
		6.3.1: Goal Fusion
		6.3.2: Self-Esteem
	6.4: Self-Evaluation Motives
		6.4.1: Social Comparison Theory
		6.4.2: Self-Assessment: To Thine Own Self Be True
		6.4.3: Self-Verification: To Thine Own Self Be Sure
		6.4.4: Self-Enhancement: To Thine Own Self Be Good
		6.4.5: Self-Improvement: To Thine Own Self Be Better
		6.4.6: So Many Motives, So Little Time
	6.5: Reactions to Loss of Competence
		6.5.1: Self-Serving Attributional Bias
		6.5.2: Self-Handicapping
		6.5.3: Excuse Making
	Summary: Competence
	Shared Writing: Self-Defensive Strategies
	Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 1
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 2
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 3
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 4
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 5
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 6
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 7
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 8
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 9
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 10
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 11
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 12
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 13
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 14
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence, question 15
		Chapter 6 Quiz: Competence
7: Belonging
	Introduction: Belonging
	7.1: The Need to Belong
		7.1.1: Belonging Elicits Behaviors
		7.1.2: Belonging Produces Positive Outcomes
		7.1.3: Belonging Is Universal
		Belonging in the Brain
		Belonging and Oxytocin
	7.2: Sociometer Theory
		7.2.1: Does Acceptance Boost Self-Esteem and Rejection Reduce It?
	7.3: How We Gain and Maintain Belonging
		7.3.1: Likeability
		7.3.2: Competence
	7.4: Fulfilling Our Need to Belong Within Groups
		7.4.1: Social Identity Theory
		7.4.2: Terror Management Theory
		Evidence for Terror Management Theory
		7.4.3: Optimal Distinctiveness Theory
	7.5: Fulfilling Our Need to Belong Within Cyberspace
		7.5.1: Is Cyberspace Good or Bad for Belonging?
		7.5.2: Does Cyberspace Reduce Face-to-Face Contact?
	7.6: Reactions to Loss of Belonging
		7.6.1: How Researchers Study Ostracism
		7.6.2: Internal Reactions to Rejection
		Hurt Feelings
		Emotional Numbness
		Impaired Cognitive Functioning
		7.6.3: Behavioral Reactions to Rejection
		Aggression
		Impaired Self-Regulation
		7.6.4: Long-Term Reactions to Rejection
	Summary: Belonging
	Shared Writing: Is the Need to Belong Evolutionarily Adaptive?
	Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 1
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 2
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 3
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 4
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 5
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 6
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 7
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 8
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 9
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 10
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 11
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 12
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 13
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 14
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging, question 15
		Chapter 7 Quiz: Belonging
8: Goal Setting
	Introduction: Goal Setting
	8.1: Goals
		8.1.1: What Is a Goal?
		8.1.2: Why Are Goals Important?
		8.1.3: Where Do Goals Come From?
		8.1.4: How Are Goals Structured?
		Goal Hierarchy
		Applying the Goal Hierarchy
		Goal Systems Theory
	8.2: Goal Features
		8.2.1: Expectancy and Value
		8.2.2: Difficulty
		8.2.3: Specificity
		8.2.4: Joint Effect of Difficulty and Specificity
		8.2.5: Proximity
		8.2.6: Approach Versus Avoidance Goals
		8.2.7: Non-Motivational Factors
	8.3: Goal Commitment
		8.3.1: Causes and Consequences of Goal Commitment
		8.3.2: Mental Strategies to Boost Goal Commitment
		8.3.3: Commitment to an Ongoing Goal
	8.4: The Motivation Process
		8.4.1: The Four Motivational Phases
		8.4.2: Goal Mindsets
		Deliberative Mindset
		Implemental Mindset
	8.5: Goal Conflict
		8.5.1: Types of Goal Conflict
		8.5.2: Goal Shielding
	Summary: Goal Setting
	Shared Writing: Choosing a Future Goal
	Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 1
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 2
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 3
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 4
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 5
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 6
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 7
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 8
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 9
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 10
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 11
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 12
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 13
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 14
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting, question 15
		Chapter 8 Quiz: Goal Setting
9: Goal Planning
	Introduction: Goal Planning
	9.1: The Goal Planning Stage in Motivation
	9.2: From Intention to Action
		9.2.1: Mental Simulations
		Are Outcome Simulations Beneficial?
		Why Are Process Simulations Better?
	9.3: Implementation Intentions
		9.3.1: Benefits of Implementation Intentions
		Implementation Intentions Help with Goal Initiation
		Implementation Intentions Help with Goal Persistence
		Implementation Intentions Help with Overriding Old Habits
		Implementation Intentions Help With Controlling Inner States
		9.3.2: Costs of Implementation Intentions
		9.3.3: Factors That Strengthen Implementation Intentions
		Individual Differences That Moderate Implementation Intentions
		Situational Differences That Moderate Implementation Intention Effects
	9.4: Factors That Improve Goal Plans
		9.4.1: Flexibility
		9.4.2: Accountability
	9.5: Common Mistakes in Goal Planning
		9.5.1: Planning Fallacy
		What Causes the Planning Fallacy?
		9.5.2: Perceived Expertise
		9.5.3: Loss Aversion
	9.6: When Plans Fail
		9.6.1: Simulation Heuristic
	Summary: Goal Planning
	Shared Writing: Planning for a Future Goal
	Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 1
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 2
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 3
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 4
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 5
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 6
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 7
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 8
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 9
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 10
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 11
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 12
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 13
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 14
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning, question 15
		Chapter 9 Quiz: Goal Planning
10: Goal Striving
	Introduction: Goal Striving
	10.1: Goal Striving Stage in Motivation
	10.2: Self-Regulation
	10.3: Standards
		10.3.1: Possible Selves
		10.3.2: Self-Discrepancy Theory
		10.3.3: Regulatory Focus
		Outcomes of Regulatory Focus
		10.3.4: Self-Awareness Theory
	10.4: Monitoring
		10.4.1: Cybernetic Mechanism
		10.4.2: TOTE Model
		10.4.3: Benefits of Monitoring
		10.4.4: Difficulties in Monitoring
	10.5: Strength
		10.5.1: Delay of Gratification
		Are Some People Better at Delaying Gratification?
		10.5.2: Limited Resource Model
		Evidence of Ego Depletion
		10.5.3: Avoiding Self-Control Failures
		10.5.4: Boosting Self-Control
	10.6: Goal Disengagement
		10.6.1: Reasons People Fail to Disengage
		10.6.2: Facilitating Goal Disengagement
	10.7: Neuroscience of the Motivation Process
		10.7.1: Neuroscience of Goal Setting
		10.7.2: Neuroscience of Goal Planning
		10.7.3: Neuroscience of Goal Striving
	Summary: Goal Striving
	Shared Writing: Striving for a Future Goal
	Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 1
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 2
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 3
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 4
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 5
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 6
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 7
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 8
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 9
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 10
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 11
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 12
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 13
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 14
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving, question 15
		Chapter 10 Quiz: Goal Striving
11: Automatic Motivation
	Introduction: Automatic Motivation
	11.1: Unconscious Influences
		11.1.1: History of Automatic Motivation
	11.2: Conscious Versus Unconscious Mental Systems
		11.2.1: The Dual-Process Mind
		How Do the Automatic and Controlled Systems Differ?
	11.3: Auto-Motive Model
		11.3.1: Automatic Goal Activation
		Subliminal Versus Supraliminal Priming
		Priming Effects on Behavior
		Implications and Limitations of Automatic Goal Activation
		11.3.2: Automatic Goal Management
	11.4: Unexpected Triggers of Automatic Goal Pursuit
		11.4.1: Implicit Egotism
		The Chameleon Effect
		11.4.2: Anthropomorphism
		11.4.3: Embodied Cognition
		Embodied Cognition and Temperature
		Embodied Cognition and Gestures
		Embodied Cognition and Physical Experiences
		11.4.4: Impact of Others
		Significant Others
		Goal Contagion
	11.5: Consequences of Automatic Goal Pursuit
		11.5.1: Effect of Unconscious Goals on Emotions
		11.5.2: Effect of Unconscious Goals on Self-Control
		11.5.3: Effect of Unconscious Goals on Performance
	11.6: Making Goals Automatic
	Summary: Automatic Motivation
	Shared Writing: Evaluating Research on the Unconscious Mind
	Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 1
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 2
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 3
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 4
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 5
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 6
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 7
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 8
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 9
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 10
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 11
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 12
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 13
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 14
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation, question 15
		Chapter 11 Quiz: Automatic Motivation
12: Emotions
	Introduction: Emotions
	12.1: What Is an Emotion?
	12.2: What Causes Emotions?
	12.3: Biological Perspective
		12.3.1: James-Lange Theory
		Autonomic Nervous System
		Contemporary Support for James-Lange Theory
		Criticisms of the James-Lange Theory
		Facial Feedback Hypothesis
		12.3.2: Cannon-Bard Theory
	12.4: Cognitive Perspective
		12.4.1: Schachter-Singer’s Cognitive Labeling Theory
		Misattribution of Arousal
		Can Misattribution of Arousal Facilitate Romantic Attraction?
		12.4.2: Appraisal Theories
	12.5: Does Cognition or Emotion Come First?
	12.6: Neuroscience of Emotions
		12.6.1: The ACC
		12.6.2: The Amygdala
	12.7: What Types of Emotions Are There?
		12.7.1: Core Emotions
		Ekman’s Research on Core Emotions
		Facial Action Coding System (FACS)
		Plutchik\'s Research on Core Emotions
		12.7.2: Positive Emotions
	12.8: What Is the Purpose of Emotions?
		12.8.1: Emotions Provide Feedback
		12.8.2: Emotions Promote Belongingness
		12.8.3: Emotions Guide Thinking
		Feelings-as-Information Theory
		12.8.4: Emotions Guide Behavior
		Mood-as-Input Theory
		Affective Forecasting
	12.9: Emotion Regulation
		Modal Model of Emotion Regulation
	Summary: Emotions
	Shared Writing: Do Emotions Have a Purpose?
	Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 1
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 2
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 3
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 4
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 5
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 6
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 7
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 8
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 9
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 10
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 11
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 12
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 13
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 14
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions, question 15
		Chapter 12 Quiz: Emotions
13: Individual Differences
	Introduction: Individual Differences
	13.1: Individual Variability in Motivation
	13.2: Achievement Motivation
		13.2.1: Measuring Achievement Motivation
		13.2.2: Consequences of Achievement Motivation
		Achievement Motivation Differences in Goal Selection
		Achievement Motivation Differences in Cognitions
		Achievement Motivation Differences in Goal Performance
	13.3: Action-Oriented Versus State-Oriented
	13.4: Approach and Avoidance Temperaments
	13.5: Assessment and Locomotion
	13.6: Impulsivity
	13.7: Trait Self-Control
	13.8: Grit
	13.9: Five-Factor Model of Personality
		13.9.1: Conscientiousness
		13.9.2: Extraversion
		13.9.3: Neuroticism
	13.10: Optimism Versus Pessimism
		13.10.1: Is Optimism Always Beneficial?
	13.11: Epistemic Motivation
		13.11.1: Need for Closure
		13.11.2: Need for Cognition
	Summary: Individual Differences
	Shared Writing: How Important Are Individual Differences to Motivation?
	Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 1
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 2
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 3
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 4
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 5
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 6
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 7
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 8
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 9
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 10
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 11
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 12
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 13
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 14
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences, question 15
		Chapter 13 Quiz: Individual Differences
14: Situational Influences
	Introduction: Situational Influences
	14.1: The Power of the Situation
	14.2: Behaviorism
		14.2.1: Principles of Behaviorism
		Emphasis on the Situation
		Conditioning
		Reinforcement
		14.2.2: Applying Behaviorism Principles
	14.3: Drive Theory
		14.3.1: Principles of Drive Theory
		Implications for Easy Versus Difficult Tasks
		14.3.2: Criticism of Hull’s Drive Theory
	14.4: Arousal Theory
		14.4.1: Principles of Arousal Theory
		Arousal Is Based in Physiology
		Curvilinear Relationship Between Arousal and Performance
		Low Arousal Is Aversive
		14.4.2: Criticisms of Arousal Theory
	14.5: Social Situations
		14.5.1: Social Facilitation and Inhibition
		Zajonc’s Theory
		Evidence for Zajonc’s Theory
		14.5.2: Deindividuation
		Are Groups Always Bad?
		14.5.3: Social Loafing
		14.5.4: Social Power
		The Pursuit of Power
		Positives and Negatives of Power
		Can Power Backfire?
	14.6: Person-by-Situation Explanation
	Summary: Situational Influences
	Shared Writing: Analyzing the Behaviorist Approach to Motivation
	Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 1
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 2
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 3
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 4
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 5
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 6
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 7
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 8
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 9
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 10
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 11
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 12
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 13
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 14
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences, question 15
		Chapter 14 Quiz: Situational Influences
15: Applying Motivation Science to Health
	Introduction: Applying Motivation Science to Health
	15.1: Maintaining a Healthy Weight
		15.1.1: Environmental Influences
		15.1.2: The Battle Between Hedonic Hunger and Self-Control
		15.1.3: Dieting
	15.2: Alcohol Use
		15.2.1: Drinking as a Means of Achieving Other Goals
		15.2.2: Drinking Changes Motivation
		Why Does Drinking Influence Motivation?
	15.3: Effective Health Interventions
		15.3.1: Reducing Impulsive Desires
		Reprogram Your Automatic Associations
		Reprogram Your Approach Tendencies
		15.3.2: Strengthening Self-Control
		Plan for Temptations
		Conserve Your Self-Control
		Replenish Your Self-Control
		Exercise Your Self-Control
	15.4: Stress and Coping
		15.4.1: Causes of Stress
		15.4.2: Consequences of Stress
		15.4.3: Coping with Stress
	15.5: Finding Happiness
		15.5.1: Cultivate Positive Emotions
		Surround Yourself With Positive People
		Be Mindful
		Focus on Gratitude
		15.5.2: Decrease Your Commute
		15.5.3: Should Happiness Be Our Goal?
	Summary: Applying Motivation Science to Health
	Shared Writing: Being Healthy in the Future
	Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 1
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 2
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 3
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 4
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 5
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 6
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 7
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 8
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 9
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 10
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 11
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 12
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 13
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 14
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health, question 15
		Chapter 15 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Health
16: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth
	Introduction: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth
	16.1: Purchasing Behavior
		16.1.1: Factors That Impact Spending Impulses
		Environmental Factors
		Choice
		Credit Cards
		Internal Factors
		16.1.2: Factors That Strengthen Control Over Spending Impulses
		Trait Self-Control and Spending
		Compulsive Buying Disorder
		Depletion and Spending
	16.2: Irrationality in Financial Decisions
		16.2.1: Unconscious Thoughts and Financial Decisions
		16.2.2: Loss Aversion
		Framing and Loss Aversion
		16.2.3: The Endowment Effect
		16.2.4: Are Humans the Only Ones to Make Irrational Financial Decisions?
	16.3: Money as a Motivator
	16.4: Money and Happiness
		16.4.1: Buy Memories, Not Objects
		16.4.2: Enjoy Your Pleasures in Bite-Sized Pieces
		16.4.3: Pay Now, Enjoy Later
		16.4.4: Skip the Warranty
	Summary: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth
	Shared Writing: Being Wealthy in the Future
	Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 1
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 2
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 3
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 4
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 5
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 6
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 7
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 8
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 9
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 10
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 11
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 12
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 13
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 14
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth, question 15
		Chapter 16 Quiz: Applying Motivation Science to Wealth
References
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	References
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