Modern Vacuum Physics

Series Preface......Page 8
Preface......Page 10
Acknowledgments......Page 12
Contents......Page 14
1.1 What Is a Vacuum?......Page 18
1.2 History and Present Importance of Vacuum Science and Technique......Page 19
1.3 Units......Page 22
1.4 The Ranges of Vacuum......Page 23
1.5 Plan of This Book......Page 25
2.1 Specifying the Quantity of a Gas, the Mole, Ideal, and Real Gases......Page 28
2.2 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures......Page 33
2.3 Vapors and Vapor Pressures......Page 34
Exercises......Page 38
Problems......Page 40
3.1 Introduction......Page 42
3.2 Kinetic Theory of Gases......Page 43
3.3 The Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution of Molecular Speeds......Page 44
3.4 Molecular Impingement Rate, J......Page 47
3.5 Pressure and Molecular Number Density, n......Page 49
3.6 Molecular Collisions and Mean Free Path, l......Page 51
3.7 Summary......Page 55
3.8 Evaporation and Condensation......Page 56
3.9 Knudsen Number: Continuum and Molecular States of Gas......Page 58
3.10 Internal Friction and Viscosity in Gases......Page 60
3.11 Heat Conduction in Gases......Page 62
3.12 Thermal Transpiration......Page 63
Exercises......Page 64
Problems......Page 65
4.1 Introduction......Page 66
4.2 The Scattering of Molecules by a Surface......Page 67
4.3 Diffuse Scattering from a Surface - the Knudsen Cosine Law......Page 70
4.4 Adsorption and Desorption......Page 72
4.5 Outgassing......Page 79
4.6 Molecular Drag......Page 87
4.7 Sputtering......Page 89
Problems......Page 92
5.1 Introduction: Flow Regimes......Page 94
5.2 Measures of Flow: Throughput and Pumping Speed......Page 95
5.3 Conductance......Page 97
5.4 Continuum Flow......Page 99
5.5 Dynamical Analysis of Continuum Flow......Page 101
5.5.1 Bernoulli’s Equation......Page 102
5.5.2 Effects of Compressibility......Page 103
5.5.3 Flow through Short Ducts and Apertures: Choked Flow......Page 105
5.5.4 Continuum Flow through Pipes......Page 109
5.6.1 Molecular Flow through a Long Pipe......Page 112
5.6.2 Molecular Flow through an Aperture......Page 114
5.6.3 The Concept of Transmission Probability......Page 115
5.6.4 Molecular Flow through Short Pipes......Page 117
5.6.6 Entrance and Exit Effects......Page 119
5.6.7 Molecular Beaming......Page 121
5.6.8 Combining the Conductances of Elements in Series......Page 122
5.7 The Pumping Process, Pump-Down Time, and Ultimate Pressure......Page 125
5.8 Differential Pumping......Page 130
Exercises......Page 131
Problems......Page 133
6.1 Introduction......Page 136
6.2.1 The Rotary Vane Pump......Page 139
6.2.2 The Roots Pump......Page 143
6.2.3 Other Dry Pumps......Page 147
6.3.1 The Molecular Drag Pump......Page 155
6.3.2 The Turbomolecular Pump......Page 160
6.3.4 The Vapor Jet (Diffusion) Pump......Page 170
6.4.1 The Sorption Pump......Page 177
6.4.2 The Cryopump......Page 179
6.4.4 The Titanium Sublimation Pump......Page 188
6.4.5 Nonevaporable Getter (NEG) Pumps......Page 190
6.4.6 The Sputter-Ion Pump......Page 193
7.1 Introduction......Page 200
7.2.1 U-Tube Manometers......Page 203
7.2.2 The McLeod Gauge......Page 204
7.2.3 Gauges Depending on Deformation of a Sensor......Page 206
7.2.4 The Capacitance Diaphragm Gauge......Page 207
7.3 Gauges Depending on Thermal Conduction......Page 212
7.3.1 The Pirani Gauge......Page 215
7.3.2 The Thermocouple Gauge......Page 217
7.4 The Spinning Rotor Gauge (SRG)......Page 218
7.5.1 The Hot Cathode Gauge......Page 222
7.5.2 Cold Cathode Gauges......Page 232
7.6 The Calibration of Vacuum Gauges......Page 235
7.7 Partial Pressure Gauges......Page 238
7.7.1 General......Page 239
7.7.2 The Quadrupole Instrument......Page 241
7.7.3 Magnetic Sector and Time-of-Flight Analyzers......Page 247
7.7.4 Analysis and Display......Page 249
8.2 Pumping Water Vapor......Page 254
8.3 Pumping through a Long Pipe......Page 257
8.4 Differential Pumping in an Electron-Optical Application......Page 261
8.5 High Flow Rates at Low and Medium Vacuum with Roots and Rotary Pumps in Combination......Page 263
8.6 System for Vacuum Coating at High Vacuum, 10-6 mbar......Page 264
8.7 High and Ultrahigh Vacuum Pumping with Turbomolecular Pumps......Page 270
8.8 Ion-Pumped Ultrahigh-Vacuum System......Page 274
Problems......Page 275
9.2 Vacuum-Insulated Panels......Page 278
9.3 Vacuum Deposition of Thin Film Coatings......Page 281
9.4 Microelectronic Fabrication......Page 286
9.5 Flat-Panel Displays......Page 289
9.6 Mirrors of the Very Large Telescope (VLT)......Page 295
9.7 Synchrotron Radiation Sources......Page 298
9.8 Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion......Page 302
9.9 Gravitational Wave Detection......Page 306
9.10 Particle Physics: the LEP and LHC......Page 309
10.1 Introduction......Page 316
10.2 Materials......Page 317
10.3 Demountable Connections......Page 319
10.4 Valves......Page 322
10.5 Bellows and Motion Feedthroughs......Page 323
10.6 In-House Design......Page 327
10.8 Leaks and Their Detection......Page 329
Answers to Exercises and Problems......Page 338
Bibliography......Page 342
References......Page 344
List of Symbols......Page 350
Index......Page 354