Milestones in analog and digital computing. vol. 1

Preface
	Two Volumes
		Volume 1
		Volume 2
	The Book in Numbers
	What Is New?
	Selected Milestones
	Global Surveys
		Step-by-Step Operating Instructions
		Preservation of the Cultural Heritage of Technology
		Digital Transformation
	Regarding the Origins of This Book
		Obstacles
		Theft of Intellectual Property
		Acquisition of Top-Quality Photographic Material
		No Financial Support
		Multicolored Mixture
		Additions and Improvements
		Search for Objects and Documents
	English Edition
	Environmental Protection
	Highlighting
Acknowledgments
Libraries
Museums and Archives
Magnificent Fully Functional Androids from the Eighteenth Century
Provision of Mechanical Calculating Machines and Cylindrical Slide Rules
Scientific Journals and Conference Proceedings
Photographs
Award-Winning Book
Book Reviews
English Translation
The Publisher
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
	1.1 Objective
	1.2 Target Groups
	1.3 Period of Time
	1.4 What Is Computing Technology?
	1.5 Spectacular Device and Document Findings
	1.6 Most Frequently Asked Questions Regarding Unknown Calculating Devices
	1.7 Instructions for Operating Historic Calculating Aids
	1.8 In Regard to the Origin of This Book
	1.9 In Regard to Language
	1.10 In Regard to the Content
	1.11 Priorities
	1.12 Oral History Interviews
	1.13 Firsthand Accounts
	1.14 Approach
	1.15 Highlights of the Researches
	1.16 Low Points of the Researches
	1.17 Plagiarism of Intellectual Property
	1.18 Publications
	1.19 Sources
	1.20 Bibliography
	1.21 Regarding the Title of the Book
	1.22 Instructions for Assembly
Chapter 2: Basic Principles
	2.1 Analog and Digital Devices
		2.1.1 Numerals or Physical Variables
		2.1.2 Numeration or Measurement
	2.2 Parallel and Serial Machines
	2.3 Decimal and Binary Machines
	2.4 Fixed Point and Floating Point Computers
	2.5 Special-Purpose and Universal Computers
	2.6 Interconnected Computers
	2.7 Conditional Commands
	2.8 Components of Relay and Vacuum Tube Computers
	2.9 Electronic Tubes
	2.10 Delay Line Memories and Electrostatic Memories
	2.11 Main Memory
	2.12 Magnetic Memory
	2.13 Hardware and Software
	2.14 Subtraction with Complements
	2.15 Direct and Indirect Multiplication
	2.16 Sequence Control and Program Control
	2.17 Automation
	2.18 Punched Card Machines
	2.19 Electronic Brains
	2.20 Commercial Data Processing and Scientific Computation
	2.21 Program-Controlled Digital Computers in the Year 1950
	2.22 Mechanical Calculating Machines
	2.23 Accounting Machines
	2.24 Tabulators
	2.25 Diversity of Terms and Change of Meaning
	2.26 Digitization and Artificial Intelligence
		2.26.1 Algorithms Are Nothing New
		2.26.2 Artificial Intelligence Is Nothing New
		2.26.3 Digitization Is Nothing New
		2.26.4 Two Notable Phases of Digitization
		2.26.5 Digital History?
		2.26.6 Industrial Revolutions
		2.26.7 The Digital Transformation
			2.26.7.1 The Internet and World Wide Web
			2.26.7.2 Internet Giants
			2.26.7.3 Search Engines
			2.26.7.4 Digital Reference Works
			2.26.7.5 Localization
			2.26.7.6 Smartphones
			2.26.7.7 Social Networks (Social Media)
			2.26.7.8 Electronic Commerce
			2.26.7.9 Sharing Economy
			2.26.7.10 Open Access to Economic Information
			2.26.7.11 Digitization of Libraries and Archives
			2.26.7.12 Citizen Science
			2.26.7.13 Virtual Reality
			2.26.7.14 Devices for Three-Dimensional Input and Output
			2.26.7.15 Fitness
			2.26.7.16 Cyborgs
			2.26.7.17 Cybercrime
			2.26.7.18 Cloud Computing
			2.26.7.19 Blockchains
			2.26.7.20 Internet of Things
			2.26.7.21 Mobile Communications Standard 5G
			2.26.7.22 Big Data
			2.26.7.23 Data Ownership
			2.26.7.24 Artificial Intelligence
			2.26.7.25 Voice Assistants
			2.26.7.26 Machine Learning and Artificial Neural Networks
			2.26.7.27 Machine Vision
			2.26.7.28 Robots and Drones
			2.26.7.29 Self-Driving Cars
			2.26.7.30 Who Is Responsible?
			2.26.7.31 Superiority of Machines
			2.26.7.32 Will Robots Dominate the World?
			2.26.7.33 What Does the Future Have in Store?
	2.27 Quantum Computers
	2.28 DNA Computers
Chapter 3: The Coming of Age of Arithmetic
	3.1 From Tally Stick Through Abacus to Smartphone
	3.2 Counting with the Fingers
	3.3 Abacus Calculation
		3.3.1 Calculating with Roman Numbers Is Laborious
		3.3.2 Bead Frame Computation
		3.3.3 Russian Counting Frames and School Abacus
	3.4 Counting Tables, Counting Boards, and Counting Cloths
		3.4.1 Line Computation/Calculating on Lines
	3.5 Pen and Paper Calculation
	3.6 Graphical Computation: Nomography
	3.7 Lines of Development
	3.8 Many Technical Objects Are Also Magnificent Works of Art
Chapter 4: Classification of Calculating Aids and Related Instruments
	4.1 Calculating Devices and Calculating Machines
	4.2 Adding Machines and Calculating Machines
	4.3 Mathematical Machines and Mathematical Instruments
	4.4 Planimeters
	4.5 Pantographs
	4.6 Intercept Theorems
		4.6.1 We Are Probably Indebted to Thales of Miletus for the Intercept Theorem
		4.6.2 The Pantograph: The Invention of Heron or Scheiner?
		4.6.3 How Does a Pantograph Function?
	4.7 Sectors
	4.8 Proportional Dividers
	4.9 Protractors and Clinometers
	4.10 Coordinatographs
	4.11 Mathematical Tables
	4.12 Astronomical instruments
	4.13 Mechanical and Electronic Calculators
	4.14 Classification Criteria
		4.14.1 Types of Calculating and Computing Machines
		4.14.2 Computer Generations
		4.14.3 Arithmetic Unit and Memory Unit
Chapter 5: Chronology
	5.1 Pre- and Early History of Computer Technology and Automaton Construction
Chapter 6: Pioneers in Calculating and Computing Technology
	6.1 From Which Countries Do the Inventors and Discoverers Come?
	6.2 Who Invented Which Calculating Aid When?
	6.3 New Inventions of Fundamental Importance
	6.4 Manufacturers of Calculating Aids
Chapter 7: Conferences and Institutes
	7.1 Early Conferences on Computer Science
	7.2 Early Institutes for Computing Technology
	7.3 Universities with an Illustrious Past
	7.4 Associations and Journals for the History of Computer Science
Chapter 8: Global Overview of Early Digital Computers (Tables)
	8.1 Preliminary Remarks
	8.2 Early Relay and Vacuum Tube Computers (In Alphabetical Order)
	8.3 Early Relay and Vacuum Tube Computers (In Chronological Order)
	8.4 Commentary Regarding the Early Relay and Vacuum Tube Computers
Chapter 9: Museums and Collections
	9.1 Museums of Science and Technology
		9.1.1 Collection Databases
		9.1.2 Early Exhibits of Calculating Aids
			9.1.2.1 Exhibition at the Helmhaus, Zurich
	9.2 Which Museum Has Which Historical Calculating Devices?
	9.3 Which Calculating Devices Are Among the Museum’s Holdings?
		9.3.1 Australia
			9.3.1.1 Melbourne Museum, Carlton, Victoria
			9.3.1.2 Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Sydney
		9.3.2 Austria
			9.3.2.1 Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Vienna (Kunstkammer)
			9.3.2.2 Technisches Museum Wien, Vienna
		9.3.3 Belgium
			9.3.3.1 Institut royal des sciences naturelles de Belgique, Brussels
		9.3.4 Canada
			9.3.4.1 Canada Science and Technology Museum, Ottawa/ Musée des sciences et de la technologie du Canada, Ottawa
		9.3.5 China
			9.3.5.1 故宫博物院 Palace Museum, Beijing (Museum of the Forbidden City)
		9.3.6 Czech Republic
		9.3.7 France
			9.3.7.1 Château du Clos Lucé, Amboise, Val de Loire
			9.3.7.2 Muséum Henri-Lecoq, Clermont-Ferrand
			9.3.7.3 Musée des arts et métiers, Paris
			9.3.7.4 Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (Cabinet des médailles)
			9.3.7.5 Cathédrale Notre Dame de Strasbourg
			9.3.7.6 Musée de l’œuvre Notre-Dame, Strasbourg
			9.3.7.7 Musée historique, Strasbourg
		9.3.8 Germany
			9.3.8.1 Philipp-Matthäus-Hahn-Museum, Albstadt-Onstmettingen
			9.3.8.2 Deutsches Technikmuseum, Berlin
			9.3.8.3 Arithmeum, Bonn
			9.3.8.4 Braunschweigisches Landesmuseum, Braunschweig
			9.3.8.5 Hessisches Landesmuseum, Darmstadt
			9.3.8.6 Historisches Museum, Dinkelsbühl
			9.3.8.7 Grünes Gewölbe, Dresden
			9.3.8.8 Mathematisch-physikalischer Salon, Dresden
			9.3.8.9 Technische Sammlungen, Dresden
			9.3.8.10 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek, Hanover
			9.3.8.11 Leibniz Universität Hannover (Leibniz Exhibit)
			9.3.8.12 Leibniz Universität Hannover (Sammlung historischer geodätischer Instrumente und historischer Rechenhilfsmittel)
			9.3.8.13 Astronomisch-physikalisches Kabinett, Kassel
			9.3.8.14 Technoseum, Mannheim
			9.3.8.15 Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich
			9.3.8.16 Deutsches Museum, Munich
			9.3.8.17 Münchner Stadtmuseum, Munich
			9.3.8.18 Heinz Nixdorf Museumsforum, Paderborn
			9.3.8.19 Landesmuseum Württemberg, Stuttgart
			9.3.8.20 Museum Tuttlingen-Möhringen
		9.3.9 Greece
			9.3.9.1 Επιγραφικό Μουσείο, Athens (Epigraphic Museum)
			9.3.9.2 Εθνικό Αρχαιολογικό Μουσείο, Athens (National Archaeological Museum)
		9.3.10 Italy
			9.3.10.1 Musée archéologique régional, Aosta
			9.3.10.2 Museo Galileo, Florence
			9.3.10.3 Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnologia “Leonardo da Vinci”, Milan
			9.3.10.4 Palais-Mamming-Museum, Meran
			9.3.10.5 Museo archeologico nazionale, Naples
			9.3.10.6 Palazzo reale, Reggia di Caserta
			9.3.10.7 Museo nazionale romano (Palazzo Massimo alle Terme), Rome
		9.3.11 Japan
		9.3.12 The Netherlands
			9.3.12.1 Rijksmuseum Boerhaave, Leiden
		9.3.13 New Zealand
			9.3.13.1 Museum of Transport and Technology, Auckland
		9.3.14 Spain
			9.3.14.1 Museo “Torres Quevedo,” Madrid (Universidad politecnica de Madrid)
			9.3.14.2 Museo arqueológico nacional, Madrid
		9.3.15 Sweden
			9.3.15.1 Stadsmuseum, Gothenburg
			9.3.15.2 Tekniska museet, Stockholm 	(National Museum of Science and Technology)
		9.3.16 Switzerland
			9.3.16.1 Historisches Museum, Basel
			9.3.16.2 Museum für Kommunikation, Bern
			9.3.16.3 Musée d’art et d’histoire, Geneva
			9.3.16.4 Museum Rosenegg, Kreuzlingen TG
			9.3.16.5 Musée international d\'horlogerie, La Chaux-de-Fonds NE
			9.3.16.6 Musée d’horlogerie, Le Locle NE
			9.3.16.7 Musée d’art et d’histoire, Neuchâtel
			9.3.16.8 Museum Allerheiligen, Schaffhausen
			9.3.16.9 Museum für Musikautomaten, Seewen SO
			9.3.16.10 Museum Enter, Solothurn
			9.3.16.11 Historisches Museum, Schloss Thun BE
			9.3.16.12 ETH Zurich
			9.3.16.13 Schweizerisches Landesmuseum, Zurich
			9.3.16.14 Uhrenmuseum Beyer, Zurich
		9.3.17 UK
			9.3.17.1 Bletchley Park Trust, Bletchley Park
			9.3.17.2 National Museum of Computing, Bletchley Park
			9.3.17.3 Centre for Computing History, Cambridge
			9.3.17.4 Edinburgh Napier University
			9.3.17.5 British Museum, London
			9.3.17.6 Science Museum, London
			9.3.17.7 Science and Industry Museum, Manchester
			9.3.17.8 History of Science Museum, Oxford
		9.3.18 USA
			9.3.18.1 Intellectual Ventures Laboratories, Bellevue, Washington
			9.3.18.2 Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
			9.3.18.3 MIT Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
			9.3.18.4 National Cryptologic Museum, Fort George G.Meade, Maryland
			9.3.18.5 Computer History Museum, Mountain View, California
			9.3.18.6 University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (School of Engineering and Applied Science)
			9.3.18.7 Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (Traub-McCorduck Collection)
			9.3.18.8 Living Computers: Museum + Labs, Seattle, Washington
			9.3.18.9 IBM Corporate Archives, IBM Corporation, Poughkeepsie, New York
			9.3.18.10 National Museum of American History, Washington, D.C.
				Illustrations
	9.4 Where Is a Particular Historical Calculating Device on Exhibit?
		9.4.1 Analog Calculating Aids
		9.4.2 Digital Calculating Aids
		9.4.3 Counting Tables, Counting Boards, and Counting Cloths
		9.4.4 Historical Calculating Aids and Their Exhibition Sites: Originals
		9.4.5 Historical Calculating Aids and Their Exhibition Sites: Replicas and Reconstructions
		9.4.6 Programmable Historical Automaton Writers (Original Specimens)
		9.4.7 Why Reconstructions?
		9.4.8 Roberto Guatelli: Replicas of Machines from da Vinci, Pascal, Leibniz, Babbage, and Hollerith
			9.4.8.1 Five Guatelli Replicas at the Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh
			9.4.8.2 How Many da Vinci Models and Replicas of Calculating Machines Have Survived?
			9.4.8.3 The Millionaire Direct Multiplier
			9.4.8.4 Models of Leonardo da Vinci
			9.4.8.5 Excerpts from Two American Publications
		9.4.9 Resurrected Relay and Vacuum Tube Computers
	9.5 Oldest Surviving Calculating Aids
		9.5.1 Early Four-Function Machines
		9.5.2 Early One- and Two-Function Machines
		9.5.3 Schickard, Pascal, and Leibniz
			9.5.3.1 Operability
		9.5.4 Cylindrical Calculating Machines
Chapter 10: The Antikythera Mechanism
	10.1 An Astronomical Calculating Machine
	10.2 The Astrolabe: Planetarium or Calendar Calculator?
	10.3 When Was the Astronomical Calculator Found?
	10.4 When Did the Ship Sink?
	10.5 When Was the Ship Built?
	10.6 When Was the Astronomical Calculator Built?
	10.7 Who Constructed the Mechanism?
	10.8 Reconstructions
	10.9 Conclusions
Chapter 11: Schwilgué’s Calculating Machines
	11.1 Schwilgué’s “Process” Calculator
		11.1.1 An Unconventional Special-Purpose Calculating Machine Without a Customary Setting Mechanism?
		11.1.2 The Peculiar Machine Proved to Be an Early “Process” Calculator
		11.1.3 An Accompanying Document Reveals the First Indications About the Origin of the Calculating Machine
		11.1.4 Purpose of the Calculating Machine: Calculation of Circle Partitioning Factors
		11.1.5 The Results of the Calculating Machine Determine the Settings for the Gear Milling Machine
		11.1.6 Controlling the Gear Milling Machine from a Paper Tape
		11.1.7 High-Precision Fine Mechanics
		11.1.8 Gear Milling Machine or Gear Partitioning Machine?
		11.1.9 A Tooling Machine Specifically Designed for the Astronomical Clock
		11.1.10 Dating the “Process” Calculator
		11.1.11 Was the Large Adding Machine Used for the Astronomical Clock?
		11.1.12 The Calculating Machine Determines Number Trains for the Tape Controlled Milling Machine
		11.1.13 Machine Control by Paper Tape
		11.1.14 When Were Schwilgué’s Machines First Mentioned?
		11.1.15 Schwilgué’s Church Calculator
	11.2 Schwilgué’s Keyboard Adding Machine
		11.2.1 The World’s Oldest Surviving Keyboard Adding Machines
		11.2.2 Technical Features
		11.2.3 Inputting Numbers via Keyboard
		11.2.4 Two Precursors and Two Finalized Devices
		11.2.5 The Replica of a Solothurn Clockmaker
		11.2.6 The World Exhibition of 1851 at the Crystal Palace in London
Chapter 12: The Thomas Arithmometer
	12.1 The Arithmometer: The First Industrially Produced Calculating Machine
	12.2 The Stepped Drum Machine Is Capable of All Basic Arithmetic Operations
	12.3 The World Exhibition of 1851 at the Crystal Palace in London
	12.4 What Was the Cost of an Arithmometer?
	12.5 A Wealth of Information About the History of Technology and Industry
Chapter 13: The Curta
	13.1 Preliminary Remarks
	13.2 Development of the Curta
		13.2.1 The First Patents for the Curta
		13.2.2 Arrest and Deportation to the Buchenwald Concentration Camp
		13.2.3 Curta, a Gift for the Führer for the Ultimate Victory?
		13.2.4 Design Drawings from the Buchenwald Concentration Camp
		13.2.5 Contract for Work with Rheinmetall-Borsig in Sömmerda
		13.2.6 Escape from Russian Persecutors in Thuringia
		13.2.7 The Crowning Achievement of 350 Years of Mechanical Calculating Machine Development
	13.3 Description of the Curta
		13.3.1 Design Drawings
		13.3.2 Is the Curta the Smallest Mechanical Calculating Machine in the World?
	13.4 The Founding of Contina in Liechtenstein
		13.4.1 New Beginning in Liechtenstein
		13.4.2 Swindled Out of His Life’s Work
		13.4.3 Letters of Inquiry to Swiss Machine Builders for the Manufacture of the Curta
		13.4.4 Opposition from Switzerland
	13.5 Mass Production of the Curta in Liechtenstein
		13.5.1 Piece Numbers
	13.6 Global Sales of the Curta
		13.6.1 The Curta at the Schweizer Mustermesse in Basel
		13.6.2 The Curta at the Bürofachausstellung in Zurich
		13.6.3 Who Used the Curta?
		13.6.4 Prices
	13.7 A Mechanical Parallel Calculator from Liechtenstein
		13.7.1 Double, Quadruple, and Quintuple Curtas
		13.7.2 Patent Specifications for the Multiple Calculating Machine
		13.7.3 The World’s Smallest Mechanical Parallel Calculator
	13.8 A British Mechanical Parallel Calculator
		13.8.1 The British 12-Fold Curta for Matrix Calculations
		13.8.2 Independent Development of Two Mechanical Parallel Calculators?
		13.8.3 The UK Matrix Calculator Has Been Lost
Chapter 14: Slide Rules
	14.1 Logarithms
		14.1.1 Graphical Calculation
		14.1.2 Who Introduced Logarithms and the Slide Rule?
		14.1.3 Addition and Subtraction with Slide Rules
	14.2 Types
		14.2.1 Linear Slide Rules, Circular Slide Rules, and Cylindrical Slide Rules
		14.2.2 Endless Scales and Double Scales
	14.3 Classification of Slide Rules
		14.3.1 Linear Slide Rules
		14.3.2 Circular Slide Rules
		14.3.3 Cylindrical Slide Rules
	14.4 Slide Rule Manufacturers
	14.5 Dating of Cylindrical Slide Rules
	14.6 Relationship Between the Serial Numbers and Scale Length
	14.7 The Weber Circular Slide Rule
		14.7.1 A Circular Slide Rule of Unusual Design
		14.7.2 How Does the Device Function?
		14.7.3 Who Built the Circular Slide Rule?
		14.7.4 Where Was the Circular Slide Rule Found?
	14.8 Loga Cylindrical Slide Rules
		14.8.1 The 24 Meter Cylindrical Slide Rule
		14.8.2 Determination of Age
		14.8.3 How Long Is the Scale?
		14.8.4 Loga Cylindrical Slide Rules: Lists of Models and Price Lists
Chapter 15: Historical Automatons and Robots
	15.1 Automaton Figures
		15.1.1 Programmed Cylinders
		15.1.2 Famous Builders of Automatons
		15.1.3 Ornate Automaton Figures
		15.1.4 Jaquet-Droz
		15.1.5 Maillardet’s Automaton in Philadelphia
		15.1.6 Programmable Automaton Writers
		15.1.7 The World’s Most Magnificent Mechanical Androids Are from the Eighteenth Century
		15.1.8 The Mechanical Clock with a Writing Figure of the Beijing Palace Museum
		15.1.9 Magnificent Human and Animal Automatons from Le Locle
		15.1.10 The Tower and Ship Automatons and Chariots
		15.1.11 Leonardo da Vinci’s Automatons
	15.2 Musical Automatons
		15.2.1 Mechanical Musical Instruments
		15.2.2 The Wide Variety of Instruments
		15.2.3 Music Boxes
		15.2.4 Singing Birds
		15.2.5 Train Station and Chalet Automatons
		15.2.6 Violin and Organ Automatons
		15.2.7 Sound Recording Media
		15.2.8 Talking Machines
		15.2.9 Automaton Figures and Musical Automatons in Museums
		15.2.10 The Componium
	15.3 Chess Automatons
		15.3.1 The Niemecz Chess Automaton
		15.3.2 The End-Game Automaton of Torres Quevedo
	15.4 Typewriters
	15.5 Clocks
		15.5.1 An Enormous Range of Clocks
		15.5.2 Clockmakers as the Inventors of Automatons and Calculating Machines
	15.6 Looms
Chapter 16: Mechanical Calculating Aids
	16.1 Counting Tables
	16.2 Manufacturers of Mathematical Drawing, Measuring, and Calculating Devices
	16.3 Slide Bar Adders and Mechanical Calculating Machines
		16.3.1 The Millionaire
			16.3.1.1 The Development of the Egli Company in Zurich
			16.3.1.2 Regarding the Dating of the Millionaire Direct Multiplying Machine
		16.3.2 The Madas
		16.3.3 The Precisa
		16.3.4 The Stima
		16.3.5 The Conto
		16.3.6 The Coréma
		16.3.7 The Correntator
		16.3.8 The Demos
		16.3.9 The Direct
		16.3.10 The Eos
		16.3.11 The Heureka
		16.3.12 The St. Gotthard
		16.3.13 The Ultra
	16.4 Prices of Calculating Aids
	16.5 Piece Numbers
	16.6 Patents for Calculating Aids
	16.7 Mechanical Calculating Aids (Overview)
	16.8 Dating with the Help of Exhibition Catalogs
		16.8.1 Catalogs from the Schweizer Mustermesse, Basel
		16.8.2 Presence of Manufacturers at the Mustermesse
		16.8.3 Manufacturers’ Presence at the Bürofachausstellung
	16.9 The Volksrechner
	16.10 Grunder’s Calculating Machine
Chapter 17: Technological, Economic, Social, and Cultural History
	17.1 The Rich Technical Cultural Heritage
	17.2 Technology Is Part of Our Culture
	17.3 The History of Science and Technology
		17.3.1 What Do We Understand by the History of Science and Technology?
		17.3.2 Why Does One Pursue the Study of the History of Science and Technology
		17.3.3 Presentation of Science and Technology in Museums
	17.4 The Transformation in the History of Technology
		17.4.1 Does the History of Technology Fulfill the Expectations Placed in It?
		17.4.2 Technical History Without Relating to Science and Engineering?
		17.4.3 Combination of “Hard” and “Soft” Technological History
	17.5 Lack of Appreciation for the History of Technology
	17.6 Experiencing Technological History
	17.7 Furthering of the Follow-On Generation of Technological Historians
	17.8 Computers Were Originally Humans
	17.9 Patent Protection
		17.9.1 No Claim to the Protection of Inventions
		17.9.2 Had the Patent Protection for the Thomas Arithmometer Expired?
	17.10 Discoveries and Inventions
		17.10.1 Invention Priority
		17.10.2 Were Logarithms Discovered or Invented?
	17.11 Patriotism and Hero Worship
	17.12 Lifespan of Calculating Aids
Chapter 18: Preserving the Technical Heritage
	18.1 Loss of Cultural Heritage
	18.2 Long-Duration Archiving
	18.3 Management of Object Collections
		18.3.1 Building Up a Collection
		18.3.2 Breakup of a Collection
		18.3.3 Gloves
		18.3.4 Functionality of Devices
		18.3.5 Improper Safekeeping of Cultural Heritage
		18.3.6 Damage to Devices due to Nonuse
		18.3.7 Reappraisal of Scientific Collections
Chapter 19: Operating Instructions
	19.1 The Abacus: Bead Frame
	19.2 The Aristo Slide Rule: Analog Computing Device
	19.3 The Brunsviga: Pinwheel Machine
	19.4 The Curta: Stepped Drum Machine
	19.5 The Loga Circular Slide Rule: Analog Calculating Device
	19.6 The Loga Cylindrical Slide Rule: Analog Calculating Device
	19.7 The Madas: Stepped Drum Machine
	19.8 The Millionaire: Direct Multiplying Machine
	19.9 Napier’s Bones: Multiplication and Division Rods
	19.10 The Odhner: Pinwheel Machine
	19.11 Schwilgué’s Keyboard Adding Machine/Single-Digit Adding Machine
	19.12 The Sector: Analog Calculating Device
	19.13 The Simex: Direct Adding Machine
	19.14 The Stima: Three-Function Machine
	19.15 The Summus: Disc Adding Machine
	19.16 The Thomas Arithmometer: Stepped Drum Machine
	19.17 The Trebla: Slide Bar Adder/Stylus-Operated Calculator
	19.18 The Volksrechner: Setting Wheel Machine/Stylus-Operated Calculator
Chapter 20: Who Was the Inventor of the Computer?
	20.1 Preliminary Remarks
	20.2 What Is a Computer?
	20.3 What Is a Turing Machine?
		20.3.1 Design of the Turing Machine
		20.3.2 Program Flow
		20.3.3 Significance for Theoretical Computer Science
		20.3.4 Algorithms
		20.3.5 The Universal Machine
	20.4 What Is a von Neumann Computer?
		20.4.1 Design of a von Neumann Computer
	20.5 Is the von Neumann Computer a Serial or a Parallel Machine?
	20.6 Who Invented the von Neumann Computer?
	20.7 What Does Stored Program Mean?
		20.7.1 Stored Programs Are Nothing New
		20.7.2 Data and Program in the Same Memory
		20.7.3 Computers with and Without a Program Memory
		20.7.4 Prerequisites for Program Storage
		20.7.5 Faster Data Processing Thanks to Program Storage
		20.7.6 What Is a Self-Modifying Program?
		20.7.7 Is the Turing Machine Self-Modifying?
		20.7.8 Is the Turing Machine Stored Programmed?
		20.7.9 The Turing Machine: Program and Data in the Same Memory? (Memory Tape as Program and Data Memory)
		20.7.10 The Turing Machine: Program and Data on Different Memory Tapes?
		20.7.11 Retrospective Firsthand Evidence
	20.8 The Universal Computer ≠ the Stored Program Computer
	20.9 Who First Had the Idea of the Stored Program?
		20.9.1 Kurt Gödel as the Founding Father of the Stored Program
		20.9.2 Zuse’s Approaches for the Stored Program
		20.9.3 Mechanical Components Brake Electronics
		20.9.4 The Breakthrough of the Stored Program Thanks to von Neumann
		20.9.5 Turing, von Neumann, or Eckert/Mauchly?
		20.9.6 Conclusions
	20.10 Who First Introduced Automatic Programming?
	20.11 Who Created the First Compiler?
	20.12 The Early Days of Programming
	20.13 Open Questions Regarding the History of Computer Science
	20.14 Where Did the Construction Knowledge Come From?
		20.14.1 Academic Lectures
		20.14.2 Publications
		20.14.3 The Construction of the First Computing Machines
		20.14.4 Introduction to Computer Technology and Evaluation of the Situation (Overview)
	20.15 Early Relay and Vacuum Tube Computers and Their Successors
	20.16 Motivations for the Building of Computers
	20.17 Who Was Instrumental in the Development of the Computer?
		20.17.1 Charles Babbage
		20.17.2 Alan Turing
		20.17.3 John von Neumann
		20.17.4 Konrad Zuse
		20.17.5 Other Possible Inventors
		20.17.6 Who Invented Which Computing Machine?
	20.18 Where Is the Cradle of the Computer?
	20.19 What Point in Time Is Decisive for an Invention?
	20.20 Who Won the Race Against Time?
		20.20.1 The Race to Develop the First Stored Program Computer
	20.21 Which Was the First Stored Program Computer?
	20.22 Who Influenced the Development of Computers and How Much?
		20.22.1 The Institute for Advanced Study: A Magnet for Visiting Scholars
		20.22.2 Who Set the Tone?
		20.22.3 Was Ada Lovelace Actually the First Programmer?
		20.22.4 The Opinions in Regard to Turing’s Influence on Computer Construction Differ Considerably
	20.23 Which Were the Most Influential Computers?
		20.23.1 Model Computer Designs
	20.24 Which Computers Were the First Commercially Available?
		20.24.1 Ferranti Mark 1 and Univac 1
		20.24.2 Leo 1 and IBM 701/650
		20.24.3 Zuse Z4
	20.25 Where Did the Money Come from?
	20.26 Setbacks with the Construction of Computers
	20.27 Machines with Print Mechanism
	20.28 Chronology: Early Electromechanical and Electronic Digital Computers
	20.29 Early Transistor Computers
	20.30 For Centuries Only a Limited Computational Need
	20.31 Pioneers as ACM and IEEE Award Winners
	20.32 Relevant Anniversaries in the History of Computing
Chapter 21: Computer Development in Germany
	21.1 Preliminary Remarks
	21.2 Plankalkül
	21.3 Early German Relay and Vacuum Tube Computers
		21.3.1 The Computer Pioneer Konrad Zuse
		21.3.2 Zuse’s Process Computer
		21.3.3 Zuse’s Logistics Machine and Chess
		21.3.4 Acquisition of the Zuse KG by BBC Mannheim with the Loss of Millions
		21.3.5 Other German Relay and Vacuum Tube Computers
	21.4 Early German Transistor Computers
	21.5 The First German Digital Computers (Overview)
		21.5.1 Telefunken GmbH, Berlin: Computer Manufacture in Konstanz
		21.5.2 The Analog and Hybrid Computers of Dornier (Friedrichshafen)
Chapter 22: Computer Development in the UK
	22.1 Preliminary Remarks
	22.2 The Enigma
		22.2.1 The Enigma, a True Puzzle
	22.3 The Polish Bomba and the Turing-Welchman Bombe
		22.3.1 The Polish Bomba
		22.3.2 The Electromechanical Bombe
	22.4 The Colossus
		22.4.1 The Lorenz SZ
		22.4.2 The Electronic Jumbo
		22.4.3 Did Turing Collaborate on the Colossus?
		22.4.4 Did Churchill Command the Destruction of All Colossus Computers?
	22.5 The Tunny
	22.6 Enigma and the Bombe, Lorenz and the Colossus
		22.6.1 Selected Cryptographic Machines
		22.6.2 Bombes and Colossi
	22.7 Bletchley Park
		22.7.1 Code Names
		22.7.2 Technical Terms
		22.7.3 The Huts
		22.7.4 Regarding the History of Bletchley Park
	22.8 Birkbeck College of the University of London
	22.9 Imperial College, London
	22.10 The Harwell Computer
		22.10.1 The Harwell Computer: The Oldest Functional Relay Computer
	22.11 The First British Digital Computers (Overview)
Chapter 23: Computer Development in Switzerland
	23.1 Zuse’s Relay Computer and the ETH Zurich
		23.1.1 When Did the ETH Zurich Learn About the Zuse Machine?
		23.1.2 How Did the ETH Zurich Learn About the Zuse Machine?
		23.1.3 Zuse and Die ETH Zurich
		23.1.4 Why Did Zuse Prepare to Flee to Switzerland in 1949?
		23.1.5 What Did the Z4 Cost?
		23.1.6 Who Paid for the Z4?
		23.1.7 How Was the Conditional Jump Implemented with the Z4?
		23.1.8 How Was the Z4 Utilized?
		23.1.9 The Bark and the Z4
	23.2 Difficulties with the Construction of the First Swiss Computer
		23.2.1 The Grueling Construction of the First Swiss Electronic Computer
		23.2.2 Purchase or Self-Construction?
		23.2.3 Five Years for Construction Instead of Three
		23.2.4 Vacuum Tube Computer Instead of Relay Computer
		23.2.5 Vexation with the Magnetic Drum
		23.2.6 The Chief Engineer Jumps Ship
		23.2.7 Did IBM Want to Hinder the Ermeth?
		23.2.8 Conflicts with Remington Rand over Breach of Contract
		23.2.9 Negotiations with Industry
		23.2.10 The Project Succeeds with the Support of the School Board President
		23.2.11 Problems Abroad Also
	23.3 Why Did the Efforts to Establish a Swiss Computer Industry in the 1950s Fail?
		23.3.1 Reproaches Against Swiss Industry
		23.3.2 Interest on the Part of Industry
		23.3.3 Why Only the Drum Memory?
		23.3.4 Hasler’s Market Prospects
		23.3.5 Did the Chief Engineer Prevent the Marketing of the Ermeth?
		23.3.6 Consequences
	23.4 Construction of Magnetic Drum Memories in Zurich
		23.4.1 The Z4: Experimental Drum
		23.4.2 The Ermeth: Experimental Drum
		23.4.3 The Ermeth: Large Drum
	23.5 The Ermeth’s Successor
		23.5.1 In 1964, the ETH Zurich Was Without a Large-Scale Computer for Several Months
		23.5.2 The Purchase of the Large-Scale Computer Led to the Acquisition of Desktop Computing Machines
	23.6 The Lilith, Ceres, Smaky, and Gigabooster
		23.6.1 Lilith and Ceres
		23.6.2 The Music and the Gigabooster
		23.6.3 The Smaky
	23.7 Zuse’s M9 Calculating Punch and Remington Rand
		23.7.1 The M9: The Journeyman Work
	23.8 The Cora Transistor Computer of Contraves
	23.9 Heinz Rutishauser: A Forgotten Pioneer
		23.9.1 Rutishauser and the Universal Turing Machine
		23.9.2 A Fundamental Reference Work for Computer Construction
	23.10 Who Was Involved in the Decisions for the Zuse Z4 and the Ermeth?
	23.11 Kommission zur Entwicklung von Rechengeräten in der Schweiz
	23.12 Who Took Part in the Meetings Concerning the Z4 and When?
	23.13 Who Took Part in the Meetings for the Ermeth?
Chapter 24: Documents Relevant to the Z4 and Ermeth
	24.1 Preliminary Remarks
	24.2 Basic Contract for the Z4 Between Zuse and the ETH (1949)
	24.3 Supplementary Agreement for the Z4 Between Zuse and the ETH (1949)
	24.4 Contract Extension of the ETH for the Z4 (1950)
	24.5 Test Report of the ETH for the Z4 (1949)
	24.6 Acceptance Certificate for the Z4 (1950)
	24.7 Final Bill of the Zuse KG for the Z4 (1950)
	24.8 Agreement for the Return of the Z4 to the Zuse KG (1955)
	24.9 Project Proposal for the Building of the Ermeth (1953)
	24.10 License Agreement for the Manufacture of the Magnetic Drum Memory (1955)
	24.11 Research Contract Between Hasler und Paillard and the ETH (1957)
Chapter 25: The Global Evolution of Computer Technology
	25.1 Preliminary Remarks
	25.2 Argentina
	25.3 Australia
	25.4 Austria
		25.4.1 The Tauschek System
		25.4.2 The Mailüfterl
	25.5 Belgium
	25.6 Canada
	25.7 China
	25.8 France
		25.8.1 Couffignal’s Failure
		25.8.2 SEA
		25.8.3 Bull with Gamma
	25.9 India
	25.10 Israel
	25.11 Italy
		25.11.1 The UNESCO International Computation Center
		25.11.2 Milan and Pisa
	25.12 Japan
	25.13 Mexico
	25.14 The Netherlands
	25.15 Russia
	25.16 Spain
		25.16.1 The Analog Calculating Machine of Torres Quevedo
		25.16.2 The Chess Automatons of Torres Quevedo
		25.16.3 The Analytical Engine of Torres Quevedo
		25.16.4 Formal Language
	25.17 Sweden
		25.17.1 The Bark Relay Computer
		25.17.2 Who Operated the Bark?
		25.17.3 The Besk Electronic Computer
	25.18 USA
		25.18.1 The Patent and Copyright Dispute
		25.18.2 The First American Digital Computers (Overview)
		25.18.3 Eckert and Mauchly Were of Swiss Descent
Glossary of the History of Technology
	German-English
Glossary of the History of Technology
	English-German
Bibliography for the History of Science and Technology
	When Did the Existence of Stored Program Digital Computers Become Known?
	Early Publications About the IBM ASCC/Harvard Mark 1: from 1946
	Early Publications Regarding the Eniac: from 1946
	Early Publications About Zuse: from 1947
	Early Publications About the Colossus: 1975 ff. (Government Code and Cypher School, Bletchley Park, Buckinghamshire, UK)
	Early Surveys of Digital Automatic Computers
	Early Manuals
	Early Basic Works on Machines and Programming
	The First Programming Language
	Correspondence Between Computer Pioneers
	Report on US Electronic Computers (Visit to Several Institutions)
	ETH Library, Zurich: Annotated Bibliography of Archival Material
	Annual Reports of the Institute for Applied Mathematics, 1947–1969
	Eduard Stiefel’s Study Visit in the USA
	Forschungskommission zur Entwicklung von Rechengeräten in der Schweiz
	Kommission zur Entwicklung von Rechengeräten in der Schweiz
	Unterredungen des Schulratspräsidenten
	Agreements Between the Zuse Company and the Institute for Applied Mathematics of the ETH
	Test Reports
	Public Demonstration of the Zuse Machine
	Final Bill for the Z4
	Return of the Z4 to the Zuse KG
	Project for the Construction of a New Program Controlled Computing Machine (Ermeth)
	Lectures at the ETH Zurich (Announcements)
	Meetings of the Swiss School Board
	Decisions of the Swiss School Board
	Decisions of the President of the Swiss School Board (Presidial Decisions and Presidial Minutes)
	Petitions to Financial Backers
	Statement of Accounts of the Financial Backers
	List of Tasks Performed with the Z4
	License Agreement for the Magnetic Drum Memory Between the Hasler AG and the ETH
	Joint Venture Between the Hasler AG, Paillard SA, and ETH
	Establishment of a Computer Center
	Communication Regarding the Takeover of the Zuse Computing Machine
	“Lost” Documents
	School Board Minutes
Index of persons, places and subjects
Important