Microplastics in the Ecosphere: Air, Water, Soil, and Food

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
Section I Single Use Plastics
	Chapter 1 Scientometric Analysis of Microplastics across the Globe
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Materials and Methods
		1.3 Results and Discussion
			1.3.1 Trends in Scientific Production and Citations
			1.3.2 Top Funding Agencies
			1.3.3 Top 10 Global Affiliations
			1.3.4 Top Countries
			1.3.5 Top 10 Databases and Journals
			1.3.6 Top 10 Published Articles
			1.3.7 Top 10 Author Keywords and Research Areas
		1.4 Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 2 Microplastic Pollution in the Polar Oceans – A Review
		2.1 Introduction
			2.1.1 Plastics
			2.1.2 Plastic Pollution
			2.1.3 Microplastics
			2.1.4 Importance of Microplastic Pollution in the Polar Oceans
		2.2 Polar Regions
			2.2.1 General
			2.2.2 Sea Ice
			2.2.3 Water
			2.2.4 Sediments
			2.2.5 Biota
		2.3 Future Perspectives
		2.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 3 Microplastics – Global Scenario
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Environmental Issues of Plastic Waste
		3.3 Coprocessing of Plastic Waste in Cement Kilns
			3.3.1 Cost of Plants to Convert Plastic Waste to Refused-Derived Fuel (RDF)
		3.4 Disposal of Plastic Waste Through Plasma Pyrolysis Technology (PPT)
			3.4.1 Merits of PPT
		3.5 Constraints on the Use of Plastic Waste Disposal Technologies
		3.6 Alternate to Conventional Petro-based Plastic Carry Bags and Films
		3.7 Improving Waste Management
			3.7.1 Phasing Out Microplastics
			3.7.2 Promoting Research into Alternatives
			3.7.3 Actions and Resolutions
		References
	Chapter 4 The Single-Use Plastic Pandemic in the COVID-19 Era
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Materials and Methods
			4.2.1 Data Sources
			4.2.2 Estimation of the General population’s Daily Use of Face Masks
			4.2.3 Estimation of the Daily Amount of Medical Waste in Hospitals
		4.3 Trends in Production and Consumption of SUPs during the Pandemic
			4.3.1 Personal Protective Equipment
			4.3.2 Packaging SUPs
				4.3.2.1 Trends in Plastic Waste Generation, Management, and Environmental Fate during the COVID-19 Era
		4.4 SUP Waste from the Pandemic
			4.4.1 Environmental Impacts from SUP Waste
			4.4.2 Management of SUP Waste
		4.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
Section II Microplastics in the Aerosphere
	Chapter 5 Atmospheric Microplastic Transport
		5.1 The Phenomenon of Microplastic Transport
		5.2 Factors Affecting Microplastic Transport
			5.2.1 Types of MPs
			5.2.2 Characteristics and Sources of Microplastics Emitters
			5.2.3 Meteorological Conditions
			5.2.4 Altitude and Surface Roughness
			5.2.5 Microplastic Deposition Processes in the Ocean
			5.2.6 Microplastics Deposition Processes in the Air
		5.3 Microplastic Transport Modelling
			5.3.1 Eulerian Method
			5.3.2 Lagrangian Method
		References
	Chapter 6 Microplastics in the Atmosphere and Their Human and Eco Risks
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Microplastics in the Atmosphere
			6.2.1 Size, Shapes, and Colours
			6.2.2 Chemical Composition
			6.2.3 Sources of Microplastics
			6.2.4 Spatial Distribution and Rate of Deposition
			6.2.5 Effects of Climatic Conditions on MP Distribution
			6.2.6 Transport Pathways
			6.2.7 Pollutants Associated with MPs
		6.3 Impact of Microplastics on Human Health and the Eco Risk
			6.3.1 Impact on Human Health
			6.3.2 Eco Risk
		6.4 Strategies to Minimise Atmospheric MPs through Future Research
		6.5 Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Chapter 7 Sampling and Detection of Microplastics in the Atmosphere
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Classification
		7.3 Sampling Microplastics
			7.3.1 Sampling Airborne Microplastics
			7.3.2 Sediment
			7.3.3 Water
			7.3.4 Biota
		7.4 Sample Preparation
		7.5 Detection and Characterisation of MPs in the Atmosphere
			7.5.1 Microscopic Techniques for Detecting MPs
				7.5.1.1 Stereomicroscopy
				7.5.1.2 Fluorescence Microscopy
				7.5.1.3 Polarised Optical Microscopy (POM)
				7.5.1.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
				7.5.1.5 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
				7.5.1.6 Hot Needle Technique
				7.5.1.7 Digital Holography
			7.5.2 Spectroscopic Techniques for Analysing MPs
				7.5.2.1 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy
				7.5.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy
			7.5.3 Thermal Analysis
				7.5.3.1 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
				7.5.3.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
				7.5.3.3 Pyrolysis–Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (Pyr–GC–MS)
		7.6 Conclusion
		Funding
		References
	Chapter 8 Sources and Circulation of Microplastics in the Aerosphere – Atmospheric Transport of Microplastics
		8.1 Introduction
			8.1.1 Occurrence and Abundance of Atmospheric MP
			8.1.2 Plastic Polymers and Their Properties
			8.1.3 Sources and Pathways of MPs in the Atmosphere
		8.2 Temporal and Spatial Trends in MP Accumulation
			8.2.1 Roadside MPs
			8.2.2 Agricultural Fields and Soil
			8.2.3 Wastewater and Sludge
			8.2.4 Ocean/Marine Debris
		8.3 Formation of MPs
			8.3.1 Physical Weathering
			8.3.2 Chemical Weathering
			8.3.3 Biodegradation
			8.3.4 Photo-thermal Oxidation
			8.3.5 Thermal Degradation
		8.4 Atmospheric Circulation, Transport, Suspension, and Deposition
			8.4.1 Wet Deposition
			8.4.2 Dry Deposition
			8.4.3 Urban Dust
			8.4.4 Suspended Atmospheric MPs
		8.5 Atmospheric Chemistry of MPs
		8.6 Predicting MP Dispersion and Transport
		8.7 Eco-Environmental Impacts
			8.7.1 Impacts on Human and Wildlife Health
			8.7.2 Impacts on the Climate
		8.8 Future Perspectives
		References
Section III Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment
	Chapter 9 Interaction of Chemical Contaminants with Microplastics
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Interactions
		9.3 Mechanisms
			9.3.1 Interactions between Organic Contaminants and Microplastics
			9.3.2 Interactions between Heavy Metals and Microplastics
			9.3.3 Kinetics of the Sorption Process
			9.3.4 Pseudo-First-Order Model
			9.3.5 Pseudo-Second-Order Model
			9.3.6 Intraparticle Diffusion Model
			9.3.7 Film Diffusion Model
			9.3.8 Isotherm Models
			9.3.9 Langmuir Model
			9.3.10 Freundlich Model
		9.4 Environmental Burden of Microplastics
		9.5 Future Approaches
		References
	Chapter 10 Microplastics in Freshwater Environments
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Microplastics in Rivers and Tributaries
		10.3 Microplastics in Lakes
		10.4 Microplastics in Groundwater Sources
		10.5 Microplastics in Glaciers and Ice Caps
		10.6 Microplastics in Deltas
		10.7 Conclusion
		Acknowledgment
		References
	Chapter 11 Microplastics in Landfill Leachate: Flow and Transport
		11.1 Plastics and Microplastics
		11.2 Microplastics in Landfill Leachate
		11.3 Summary
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 12 Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment – Effects on Ocean Carbon Sequestration and Sustenance of Marine Life
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment
			12.2.1 Major Sources
			12.2.2 Chemical Nature and Distribution Processes
				12.2.2.1 Chemical Nature
				12.2.2.2 Distribution Processes
		12.3 Microplastics and Ocean Carbon Sequestration
			12.3.1 Ocean Carbon Sequestration
			12.3.2 Effect of Microplastics on Ocean Carbon Sequestration
				12.3.2.1 Effect on Phytoplankton Photosynthesis and Growth
				12.3.2.2 Effect on Zooplankton Development and Reproduction
				12.3.2.3 Effect on the Marine Biological Pump
		12.4 Microplastics and Marine Fauna
			12.4.1 Effects on Corals
			12.4.2 Effects on Fisheries and Aquaculture
				12.4.2.1 Shrimp
				12.4.2.2 Oysters and Mussels
				12.4.2.3 Fish
			12.4.3 Effects on Sea Turtles and Sea Birds
			12.4.4 Effects on Marine Mammals
		12.5 Microplastic Pollution, Climate Change, and Antibiotic Resistance – A Unique Trio
		12.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		Acknowledgments
		References
Section IV Microplastics in Soil Systems
	Chapter 13 Entry of Microplastics into Agroecosystems: A Serious Threat to Food Security and Human Health
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Sources of Microplastics in Agroecosystems
			13.2.1 Plastic Mulching
			13.2.2 Plastic Use in Modern Agriculture
			13.2.3 Application of Sewage Sludge/Biosolids
			13.2.4 Compost and Fertilizers
			13.2.5 Wastewater Irrigation
			13.2.6 Landfill Sites
			13.2.7 Atmospheric Deposition
			13.2.8 Miscellaneous Sources
		13.3 Implications of Microplastic Contamination on Agroecosystems
			13.3.1 Implications for Soil Character
			13.3.2 Implications for Crop Plants and Food Security
		13.4 Human Health Risks
		13.5 Knowledge Gaps
		13.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 14 Migration of Microplastic-Bound Contaminants to Soil and Their Effects
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Microplastics as Sorbing Materials for Hazardous Chemicals
		14.3 Types of Microplastic-Bound Contaminants in Soils
			14.3.1 Heavy Metals and Metalloids – Inorganic Contaminants Adsorbed to MPs
			14.3.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants, Pharmaceuticals, Antibiotics, Pesticides, and Other Organic Contaminants Adsorbed to MPs
		14.4 Effects of Exposure and Co-exposure in Soil – Consequences of Contaminant Sorption for MP Toxicity and Bioaccumulation
		14.5 Microplastic-Bound Contaminants in Soils as Potential Threats to Human Health
		14.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 15 Plastic Mulch-Derived Microplastics in Agricultural Soil Systems
		15.1 Plastic Mulch Films in Agriculture
		15.2 Types of Synthetic Polymer Mulch Films
		15.3 Weathering of Plastic Mulches and Distribution of Mulch Microplastics in Soils
		15.4 Mulch Microplastic Pollution in Soil
			15.4.1 Influences of Mulch Microplastics on Soil Physical Properties
				15.4.1.1 Soil Bulk Density
				15.4.1.2 Water-Holding Capacity
				15.4.1.3 Soil Porosity
				15.4.1.4 Soil Structure
			15.4.2 Influence of MPs on Soil Chemical Properties
				15.4.2.1 Soil Organic Matter (SOM)
				15.4.2.2 Soil pH
				15.4.2.3 Nutrients in Soil
			15.4.3 The Impact of Microplastics on Soil Biological Properties
				15.4.3.1 Microbial Activity
				15.4.3.2 Soil Microbial Processes and Soil Respiration
				15.4.3.3 Influence of Microplastics on Soil Fauna
		15.5 Mulch Microplastics as a Vector
		15.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives
		References
	Chapter 16 Critical Review of Microplastics in Soil
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Sources and Transfer of Microplastics in Soils
		16.3 Classification, Qualification, and Quantification of Microplastics in Soil
		16.4 Effects and Risks of Microplastics on Soil Health
			16.4.1 Effects of Microplastics on Soil Physical and Chemical Properties
			16.4.2 Effects and Risks of Microplastics for Soil Organisms and Humans
		16.5 Analytical Methodologies for Microplastics in Soil
		16.6 Epilogue and Future Perspectives
		Acknowledgment
		References
	Chapter 17 What Do We Know About the Effects of Microplastics on Soil?
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Why and How Do MPs End Up in the Soil?
			17.2.1 Mulching Films
			17.2.2 Sewage Sludge/Compost Application
			17.2.3 Irrigation
		17.3 Microplastic Transport in Soils
		17.4 Microplastics as Carriers of Soil Contaminants – Contaminant Vectors
			17.4.1 MPs as Carriers of Metals and/or Metalloids
			17.4.2 MPs as Carriers of Organic Pollutants
		17.5 Microplastic Effects
			17.5.1 MP Effects on Soil Characteristics
			17.5.2 MP Effects on Plant Growth Performance
			17.5.3 MP Effects on Soil Nutrient Cycling
		17.6 Conclusions and Perspectives for Future Research
		References
	Chapter 18 Microbial Degradation of Plastics
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Diversity of Plastic-Degrading Microbes
		18.3 Mechanism of Microbe-Mediated Decomposition of Plastics
		18.4 Molecular Factors in the Microbial Breakdown of Plastics
		18.5 Microbes and Sustainable Degradation of Plastics
			18.5.1 Outlook
		References
	Chapter 19 Microplastics and Soil Nutrient Cycling
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Microplastics in Soil
			19.2.1 Types of Microplastics in Soil
			19.2.2 Sources of Microplastics in Soil
		19.3 Effect of Microplastics on Nutrient Cycling
			19.3.1 Soil Nitrogen Cycling
			19.3.2 Soil Carbon Cycling
			19.3.3 Soil Phosphorous Content
			19.3.4 Micronutrient and Trace Element Availability in Soil
		19.4 Effect of Microplastic-Driven Factors on Soil Nutrient Cycling
			19.4.1 Properties of Microplastics
			19.4.2 Soil Biological Characteristics
			19.4.3 Soil Chemical Characteristics
			19.4.4 Soil Physical Characteristics
			19.4.5 Consequences of Microplastics for Nutrient Cycling and Implications
		19.5 Mechanisms of Microplastic-Driven Plant Toxicity/Nutrient Uptake
		19.6 Future Perspectives
		References
Section V Microplastics in Food Systems
	Chapter 20 Microplastics in the Food Chain
		20.1 Introduction
			20.1.1 Significance of Plastics
			20.1.2 Microplastics in the Food Chain
		20.2 Presence of Microplastics in the Food Chain
			20.2.1 Transmission Through the Food Chain
			20.2.2 Other Pathways Through Which Microplastics Enter Food
				20.2.2.1 Transmission from Food Packaging
				20.2.2.2 Transmission Through Food Processing
		20.3 Possible Health Effects of Microplastics in Food
		20.4 How to Minimize Microplastic Contamination in Food
			20.4.1 Need for Research on the Realistic Ecological Impact of Microplastics
			20.4.2 Effective Methods of Microplastic Detection and Removal
			20.4.3 Public Awareness of the Health Impact of Microplastics
			20.4.4 Efficient Disposal of Plastic Waste
			20.4.5 Gradual Banning of Microbeads
		20.5 Summary
		References
	Chapter 21 Microplastics in Salt and Drinking Water
		21.1 Microplastics in Salt
			21.1.1 Introduction
				21.1.1.1 Microplastics in Salt: Occurrence and Abundance
				21.1.1.2 Microplastic Contamination in Different Salt Types
				21.1.1.3 Estimated Consumption of Microplastics through Salt
				21.1.1.4 Microplastics in Salt: Analytical Methods Used
				21.1.1.5 Removal Strategies
		21.2 Microplastics in Drinking Water
			21.2.1 Introduction
			21.2.2 Microplastics in Drinking Water: Occurrence and Abundance
				21.2.2.1 Microplastic in Tap Water
				21.2.2.2 Microplastics in Bottled Water
			21.2.3 Estimated Human Consumption of Microplastics through Drinking Water
			21.2.4 Microplastics in Drinking Water: Analytical Methods Used
			21.2.5 Removal Strategies
		21.3 Summary
		References
	Chapter 22 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood (Invertebrates) and Seaweeds
		22.1 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood and Seaweeds
			22.1.1 Origin of and Demand for Plastics
			22.1.2 Global Plastic Production and Plastic Pollution in the Oceans
			22.1.3 Possible MP Accumulation Pathways in Commercial Seafood
			22.1.4 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood and Seaweeds
				22.1.4.1 Microplastics in Mollusks
				22.1.4.2 Microplastics in Shrimp
				22.1.4.3 Microplastics in Crabs
				22.1.4.4 Microplastics in Lobsters
				22.1.4.5 Microplastics in Sea Urchins and Sea Cucumbers
				22.1.4.6 Microplastics in Seaweeds
			22.1.5 Concluding Notes
		Acknowledgement
		References
	Chapter 23 Microplastic Toxicity to Humans
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Ingestion of Microplastics
		23.3 Human Exposure to Inhalation of Microplastics
		23.4 Human Exposure to Dermal Contact with Microplastics
		23.5 Conclusions
		References
Section VI Treatment Technologies and Management
	Chapter 24 Management of Microplastics from Sources to Humans
		24.1 Introduction
			24.1.1 Composition and Characteristics of Microplastics
		24.2 Classification and Sources of Microplastics
			24.2.1 Sources of Human Exposure to Microplastics
		24.3 Impact of Microplastics on Human Health
		24.4 Social and Ecological Impacts of Microplastics
			24.4.1 Management Strategies for Microplastics
				24.4.1.1 Proper Management of Plastics and Plastic Waste
				24.4.1.2 Use of Bio-based and Biodegradable Plastics
				24.4.1.3 Improvement of Wastewater and Solid Waste Treatment Processes
		24.5 Prospects in Microplastic Management
		24.6 Summary
		References
	Chapter 25 Single-Use Ordinary Plastics vs. Bioplastics
		25.1 Ordinary Plastic – General Characteristics
		25.2 Bioplastics – General Characteristics
		25.3 Biodegradability of Bioplastics
		25.4 Selected, Innovative Methods of Bioplastic Production
		25.5 Environmental Benefits of Using Bioplastic
		25.6 Summary
		Acknowledgments
		References
Section VII Case Studies
	Chapter 26 Plastic Nurdles in Marine Environments Due to Accidental Spillage
		26.1 Introduction
			26.1.1 Microplastics
			26.1.2 Plastic Nurdles
		26.2 Presence and Sources of Plastic Nurdles in the Environment
			26.2.1 In the Terrestrial Environment
			26.2.2 In the Marine Environment
				26.2.2.1 Nurdle Distribution on Beaches in the Atlantic Ocean in the Twentieth Century
				26.2.2.2 Nurdle Distribution on Beaches in the Atlantic Ocean in the Twenty-First Century
				26.2.2.3 Nurdle Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea
				26.2.2.4 Nurdle Distribution on Beaches in the Pacific Ocean
		26.3 Accidental Spillages of Plastic Nurdles
			26.3.1 Reported Maritime Accidents Related to Nurdle Spillage
			26.3.2 Fate and Transport of Nurdles in Marine Systems
			26.3.3 Impacts of Nurdle Spillage on the Marine Environment
		26.4 X-Press Pearl Shipwreck – Case Study
			26.4.1 Nurdle Spillage
			26.4.2 Abundance of Nurdles on Sarakkuwa Beach
			26.4.3 Characteristics and Contamination of Spilled Nurdles
			26.4.4 Possible Impacts
				26.4.4.1 Marine Environment
				26.4.4.2 Impact on Marine Diversity
				26.4.4.3 Impact on Air Quality
				26.4.4.4 Impact on the Terrestrial Environment
				26.4.4.5 Impact on the Economy
		References
	Chapter 27 Compost-Hosted Microplastics – Municipal Solid Waste Compost
		27.1 Municipal Solid Waste
			27.1.1 Municipal Waste Management
			27.1.2 Composting Process as a Source of Microplastics
		27.2 Microplastics in Municipal Solid Waste Compost
			27.2.1 The abundance of microplastics in compost
			27.2.2 Sizes of microplastics
			27.2.3 Characteristics of Compost-Hosted Microplastics
		27.3 Impact of Microplastic-Contaminated Compost on Soil Properties
			27.3.1 Effect on Soil Physical Properties
			27.3.2 Impact on Soil Chemical Properties
			27.3.3 Influence on Soil Biology
		27.4 Compost-Hosted Microplastics as a Vector
			27.4.1 Effect on Soil Organisms
			27.4.2 Effects on Agriculture
		27.5 Future Perspectives
		References
	Chapter 28 Single-Use Ordinary Plastics and Bioplastics – A Case Study in Brazil
		28.1 Introduction
			28.1.1 Municipality of São Paulo (the Largest in the Country) – State Law No. 15374/2011
			28.1.2 State of Rio de Janeiro – State Law No. 8473/2019
			28.1.3 Santos(SP) – Municipal Law 232/2019
			28.1.4 Ilhabela(SP) – Municipal Law 598/2008
			28.1.5 São Sebastião (SP) – Municipal Law 2590/2018
			28.1.6 Natal (RN) – Municipal Law 295/2009
			28.1.7 Fernando de Noronha Island (PE) – District Decree 002/2018
		28.2 Types of Bioplastic
			28.2.1 Polyamide Bioplastic (PA)
			28.2.2 Polybutylene Adipate Terephthalate (PBAT) Bioplastic
			28.2.3 Lactic Polyacid (PLA) Bioplastic
			28.2.4 Bioplastics Made from Algae
			28.2.5 Shrimp Shell Bioplastic
			28.2.6 Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) Bioplastic
			28.2.7 Biocatalysts
			28.2.8 Drop-in Bioplastics
			28.2.9 Organic Waste Bioplastic
			28.2.10 Polyethylene Furanoate (PEF) Bioplastic
		28.3 Possible Substitutions
		28.4 The Recycling Approach
		28.5 Energy Recovery
		28.6 Public Policies
		28.7 Impacts of Environmental Legislation
		28.8 Challenges of Bioplastics Production
		28.9 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 29 Microplastics Remediation – Possible Perspectives for Mitigating Saline Environments
		29.1 Introduction
		29.2 Assimilation of Microplastics in Saline Water Bodies and Soil Ecosystems
		29.3 Microplastic Self-Aging and Degradation: Hopes and Risks for the Ecosystem
		29.4 Microplastics: Technologies for Remediating Saline Environments
		29.5 Economic and Social Aspects of Microplastic Remediation in Saline Conditions
		29.6 Conclusion: Hopes, and Resistance to Environmental Remediation to Achieve a Cleaner Environment
		References
	Chapter 30 The Management of Waste Tires: A Case Study in Brazil
		30.1 Introduction
		30.2 Methodology
		30.3 Results and Discussions
			30.3.1 Legislation
			30.3.2 Waste Tire Generation
			30.3.3 Car and Truck Tire Composition
			30.3.4 Comparison Between Systems for Recycling Tires in the EU Countries, the United States, Japan, and Brazil
			30.3.5 Technologies for Reuse, Recycling, and Energy Recovery
			30.3.6 Waste Tires Used in Boilers
			30.3.7 Coprocessing Waste Tires in Cement Kilns
			30.3.8 Tire Pyrolysis Process
			30.3.9 Reclaimed Rubber and Rugs for Automobiles
			30.3.10 Tire Lamination (Punched/Stamped)
			30.3.11 Asphalt Rubber
			30.3.12 Retreaded Tires
		30.4 Reverse Logistics Tires in Brazil
			30.4.1 Collection Points
			30.4.2 Recycling by Tire Manufacturers
			30.4.3 Recycling by Tires Importers
		30.5 Discussion
		30.6 Conclusions
		References
Index
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