Microplastic Occurrence, Fate, Impact, and Remediation (Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World, 73)

Preface
Contents
Microplastic Research Publications from 1991 to 2020
	1 Introduction
	2 Materials and Methods
	3 Results and Discussion
		3.1 Documents Summary
		3.2 Language of Publications
		3.3 The Variation of Publications
		3.4 The Subject Category of Web of Science
		3.5 Analysis Based on Journals
		3.6 Analysis Based on Countries
		3.7 Analysis Based on Institutions
		3.8 The Important Articles in 2020
		3.9 Research Focuses and Their Trends
	4 Conclusion
	References
Characterization and Toxicology of Microplastics in Soils, Water and Air
	1 Introduction
	2 Characterization and Quantification
		2.1 Identification of Microplastics
			2.1.1 Visual Identification
			2.1.2 Thermochemical Techniques
			2.1.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
			2.1.4 Raman Spectroscopy
			2.1.5 Quality Control and Quality Assurance
	3 Types of Microplastics
		3.1 Microbeads
		3.2 Fragments
		3.3 Nurdles
		3.4 Foams
	4 Microplastics in Soils
		4.1 Sampling of Microplastics in Soils
		4.2 Extraction of Microplastics from Soils
		4.3 Environmental Implications of Microplastics in Soils
	5 Microplastics in Water
		5.1 Sampling of Microplastics in Water
		5.2 Extraction of Microplastics from Water
		5.3 Microplastics in Drinking Water
		5.4 Environmental Implication of Microplastics in Water
	6 Microplastics in Air
		6.1 Sampling and Analysis of Microplastics in Air
		6.2 Extraction of Microplastics from Air
		6.3 Environmental Implication of Microplastics in Air
	7 Toxicology of Microplastics
	8 Conclusion
	References
Coral Feeding Behavior on Microplastics
	1 Introduction
	2 Microplastic Sources and Status
		2.1 Sources and Formation of Microplastics
		2.2 Microplastic Pollution and Research in Southeast Asia
		2.3 Research in Thailand
		2.4 Microplastic Ingestion by Marine Organisms in Thailand
	3 Coral Global Importance
		3.1 Corals in Thailand
	4 Corals Feeding Behavior on Microplastics
		4.1 Methodology
			4.1.1 Coral Collection and Acclimatization
			4.1.2 Coral Feed Preparation
		4.2 Experiment Set Up
			4.2.1 Tanks Set Up for Ingestion
			4.2.2 Egestion Chamber Set Up
			4.2.3 Coral Dissolution, Egestion and Retention Testing
		4.3 Findings
			4.3.1 Ingestion of Microplastics by Corals
			4.3.2 Number of Microplastics Egested
			4.3.3 Microplastic Retention in Both Species
	5 Limitations of the Study
	6 Conclusion
	References
Microplastics Remediation in the Aqueous Environment
	1 Introduction
	2 Remediation Technologies and Removal Strategies
		2.1 Physical Remediation
			2.1.1 Accumulation of Microplastics by the Activated Sludge Process
			2.1.2 Adsorption and Filtration
			2.1.3 Magnetic Separation
			2.1.4 Density Separation
		2.2 Chemical Remediation
			2.2.1 Coagulation, Enhanced Coagulation, and Electrocoagulation
			2.2.2 Disinfection
			2.2.3 Advanced Oxidation Processes
		2.3 Biological Remediation
			2.3.1 Membrane Bioreactor Technology
			2.3.2 Enzyme System for Microplastics
			2.3.3 Biodegradation
			2.3.4 Constructed Wetlands
	3 Comparative Analysis of Different Remediation Technologies
	4 Perspective
	5 Conclusion
	References
Removal of Environmental Microplastics by Advanced Oxidation Processes
	1 Introduction
	2 Plastics and Microplastics
	3 Sources of and Types of Microplastics
	4 Toxicity of Microplastics and Its Effects on Health
	5 Analysis of Microplastics
	6 Techniques for the Removal of Microplastics from Water
	7 Advanced Oxidation Processes for the Removal of Microplastics
	8 Photocatalytic Mechanism for the Degradation of Microplastics
		8.1 Direct Photodegradation
		8.2 Indirect Degradation
	9 Conclusion
	References
Techniques for Removal and Degradation of Microplastics
	1 Introduction
	2 Physical Techniques for Microplastic Removal
		2.1 Coagulation and Flocculation
		2.2 Electrocoagulation
		2.3 Granular Filtration
		2.4 Membrane Process
		2.5 Froth Flotation
		2.6 Adsorption
			2.6.1 Removal of Microplastics by Biopolymers
			2.6.2 Removal of Microplastics Using Metal Organic Frameworks
			2.6.3 Removal of Microplastics by Biochar
		2.7 Magnetic Separation for the Removal of Microplastics
		2.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Microplastic Removal Techniques
	3 Microplastic Degradation Methods and Mechanisms
		3.1 Advanced Oxidation Processes
			3.1.1 Photodegradation
			3.1.2 Photocatalytic Degradation
			3.1.3 Electrochemical Degradation
			3.1.4 Fenton Process and Fenton-Based Advanced Oxidation Processes
			3.1.5 Ozone Degradation
		3.2 Thermal Degradation
		3.3 Hydrolytic Degradation
		3.4 Mechanical Degradation
		3.5 Biological Degradation
			3.5.1 Conditional Film Formation
			3.5.2 Colonization
			3.5.3 Bio-fragmentation
			3.5.4 Assimilation
			3.5.5 Mineralization
		3.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Microplastic Degradation Methods
	4 Conclusions
	References
Occurrence and Removal of Microplastics in Wastewater Treatment Plants
	1 Introduction
	2 Sources and Origin of Microplastics in Wastewater Treatment Plants
	3 Occurrence of Microplastics in Wastewater Treatment Plants
		3.1 Function of Wastewater Treatment Plants
		3.2 Methods for Microplastic Analysis from Wastewater Treatment Plants
			3.2.1 Sample Collection
			3.2.2 Sample Pre-treatment
			3.2.3 Microplastic Characterization
		3.3 Removal of Microplastics by Wastewater Treatment Plants
			3.3.1 Preliminary and Primary Treatment
			3.3.2 Secondary Treatment
			3.3.3 Tertiary Treatment
			3.3.4 Overall Microplastic Removal Efficiencies
			3.3.5 Microplastics in Sewage Sludge
			3.3.6 Major Treatment Unit for Microplastic Removal
	4 Conclusion
	References
Microplastic Sources, Transport, Exposure, Analysis and Removal
	1 Introduction
	2 Microplastics Types and Sources
		2.1 Primary Sources of Microplastics
		2.2 Secondary Sources of Microplastics
	3 Transport and Fate of Microplastic in Water Bodies
		3.1 Transportation of Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment
		3.2 Transportation of Microplastic in Atmosphere
		3.3 Degradation and Settlement of Microplastics
	4 Threats to Aquatic Flora and Fauna
		4.1 Microplastic Contamination in Aquatic Animals
		4.2 Microplastic Contamination in Plants
	5 Effect of Microplastics on Human Health
		5.1 Exposure Pathways
			5.1.1 Inhalation
			5.1.2 Exposure Through Food
			5.1.3 Exposure Through Skin Pores
		5.2 Effect of Plastic Additives on Human Health
		5.3 Heavy Metals
	6 Separation and Detection of Microplastics in Aqueous Systems
		6.1 Methods for Sampling Microplastics
		6.2 Microplastics Detection and Quantification
	7 Removal of Microplastics from Water and Wastewater Systems
		7.1 Removal by Algal Biomass
		7.2 Removal by Membrane Technologies
		7.3 Removal by Chemical Treatment
		7.4 Removal by Biological Agents
	8 Perspective
	9 Conclusion
	References
Atmospheric Microplastics in Outdoor and Indoor Environments
	1 Introduction
	2 Microplastics in the Outdoor Environment
		2.1 Abundance of Microplastics
		2.2 Factors Affecting Microplastics Abundance
		2.3 Sources of Microplastics
	3 Microplastics in Indoor Environment
		3.1 Abundance of Microplastics
		3.2 Factors Affecting Microplastics Abundance
		3.3 Sources of Microplastics
	4 Comparison Between Indoor and Outdoor Microplastics Pollution
	5 Conclusion
	References
Nanoplastic Sources, Characterization, Ecological Impact, Remediation and Policies
	1 Introduction
	2 What Are Nanoplastics?
	3 Sources of Nanoplastics
	4 Characterization of Microplastics and Nanoplastics
	5 Nanoplastics as a Contaminant
	6 Ecological Impact and Toxicity
		6.1 Impact on Marine Organisms
		6.2 Human Health
		6.3 Impact on the Food Chain
	7 Preventive Measures and Controlling Pollution
		7.1 Strategies for Managing Nanoplastics
		7.2 Policies and Regulations
	8 Conclusion
	References
Microplastics in Soil-Plant Systems
	1 Introduction
	2 Microplastics in Soils
		2.1 Impact of Microplastics on Soils
			2.1.1 Effects on Soil Physical Properties
			2.1.2 Effects on Soil Chemical Properties and Pollutants
		2.2 Interactions of Microplatics with Microbes
	3 Biodegradation of Microplastics
		3.1 Microbial Colonization
		3.2 Enzyme-Assisted Fragmentation
		3.3 Biological Intake and Degradation
	4 Impact of Microplastics on the Environment
		4.1 Impact on Terrestrial Plant Growth and Diversity
			4.1.1 Transportation of Microplastics in Plant Tissues
			4.1.2 Effect on Seed Germination
			4.1.3 Effect on the Plant Vascular System
			4.1.4 Effect on Shoots and Roots
			4.1.5 Effect on Plant Growth
			4.1.6 Effect on Ecosystems
	5 Analysis of Microplastics
		5.1 Visual Identification
			5.1.1 Microscopy
			5.1.2 Spectroscopy
			5.1.3 Thermodynamics
			5.1.4 Other Techniques
	6 Perspective
	7 Conclusion
	References
Correction to: Characterization and Toxicology of Microplastics in Soils, Water and Air
	Correction to: Chapter 2 in: C. Wang et al. (eds.), Microplastic Occurrence, Fate, Impact, and Remediation, Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World 73, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36351-1_2
Index