Microencapsulation in the Food Industry: A Practical Implementation Guide

Front Cover
Microencapsulation in the Food Industry
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
List of contributors
About the editor
Foreword
Preface
1 Introduction to microencapsulation and controlled delivery in foods
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Microencapsulation defined
	1.3 Reasons for microencapsulation
	1.4 Types of microcapsules
	1.5 Historical account of microencapsulation
	1.6 Materials used for microencapsulation purposes
	1.7 Microencapsulation techniques used within the food industry
	1.8 Trends in microencapsulation
	1.9 Challenges in microencapsulation of food ingredients
	1.10 The future of microencapsulation of food ingredients
	References
2 Review of microencapsulation patent landscape for the food and beverage industries
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Innovation trend
	2.3 Microencapsulation technology-type advancement
	2.4 Jurisdiction analysis
	2.5 Word cloud analysis
	2.6 Main industrial and academic players
	2.7 Largest invention families
	2.8 Top market-valued patents
	2.9 Key patent matters
	2.10 Licensing
	2.11 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
3 Factors and mechanisms in microencapsulation
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Structural design of the microcapsule
	3.3 Microcapsule or microsphere type
	3.4 Microcapsule size, shape, and payload
	3.5 Physicochemical factors
		3.5.1 Molecular weight of the active agent
		3.5.2 Functional moiety and surface charge
		3.5.3 Concentration
		3.5.4 Solubility
		3.5.5 Wettability
		3.5.6 Temperature
		3.5.7 Process factors
	3.6 Mechanism of diffusion
		3.6.1 Zero-order or pseudo-zero-order diffusion model
		3.6.2 Fickian diffusion model
		3.6.3 First-order diffusion model
		3.6.4 Higuchi’s diffusion model
		3.6.5 Case II diffusion
		3.6.6 Osmosis
	3.7 Conclusion
	References
4 Applications of mass and heat transfer in microencapsulation processes
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Mechanism of diffusion
	4.3 Zero-order or pseudo-zero-order diffusion model
	4.4 Fickian diffusion model
		4.4.1 Mass transfer in a microsphere morphology
		4.4.2 Unsteady-state diffusion from a microsphere
		4.4.3 Mass transfer in a microcapsule morphology
		4.4.4 Analogy to heat transfer
	4.5 First-order diffusion model
	4.6 Conclusion
	References
5 Overview of microencapsulation process technologies
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Process components
	5.3 Processes
		5.3.1 Atomization
		5.3.2 Spray coating
		5.3.3 Coextrusion
		5.3.4 Emulsion based process
		5.3.5 Other
	5.4 Comparisons
		5.4.1 Size
		5.4.2 Morphology
		5.4.3 Payload
		5.4.4 Materials
		5.4.5 Production scale
		5.4.6 Cost
	5.5 Emerging processes and trends
	5.6 Process selection
	References
6 Atomization and spray drying processes
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Atomization
	6.3 Drying configurations
		6.3.1 Mass transfer and heat transfer considerations
	6.4 Operational practice
	6.5 Feed preparation
	6.6 Recent advances in atomization and spray-drying processes
	6.7 Conclusion
	References
7 New advances in spray-drying processes
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Technologies
	7.3 Computational optimization
	7.4 Analyzing the drying process of a droplet
	7.5 Drying kinetics as input for computational fluid dynamics
		7.5.1 Spray drying equipment and controls
		7.5.2 Temperature control
		7.5.3 Flexible spray drying, agglomeration, and granulates
		7.5.4 Cleaning-in-place
		7.5.5 Sanitary bag filters
		7.5.6 Process controls
		7.5.7 Process monitoring
	7.6 Conclusion
	References
8 Fluid bed coating-based microencapsulation
	Abbreviations
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Wurster (bottom spray)
		8.2.1 Design
			8.2.1.1 Fluidizing air
			8.2.1.2 Nozzle
			8.2.1.3 Scaling
			8.2.1.4 Continuous process
		8.2.2 Wurster process control parameters
			8.2.2.1 Fluidization
			8.2.2.2 Partition
			8.2.2.3 Temperature
			8.2.2.4 Spray rate
			8.2.2.5 Atomization
		8.2.3 Particle size
	8.3 Top spray
	8.4 Tangential spray
	8.5 Core materials
	8.6 Coating materials
	8.7 Applications
		8.7.1 Uniformity
		8.7.2 Protection
		8.7.3 Handling
		8.7.4 Granulation
		8.7.5 Controlled release
	8.8 Cost
	8.9 Conclusion
	References
9 Extrusion-based microencapsulation for the food industry
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Mixing
	9.3 Properties and characterization of amorphous solids
	9.4 Evolution of extrusion technology
	9.5 Conclusion
	References
10 Spheronization, granulation, pelletization, and agglomeration processes
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Basic equipment
	10.3 Batch fluidized beds for drying, agglomeration, and coating
	10.4 Continuous fluidized beds for drying, agglomeration, spray granulation, and coating
	10.5 Procell type of continuous spouted beds for drying, agglomeration, spray granulation, and coating
	10.6 Technical options for pelletization
	10.7 Technical options for high-shear granulation
	10.8 Technical options for extrusion
	10.9 Application case studies
	10.10 Formulation of enzymes
	10.11 Formulation of vitamins
	10.12 Encapsulation of volatile ingredients
	10.13 Conclusion
	References
11 Annular nozzle in laminar flow encapsulation processes
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Process technologies
		11.2.1 Laminar flow breakup
		11.2.2 Vibrational drip casting
		11.2.3 Submerged nozzle
		11.2.4 Flow focusing
		11.2.5 Centrifugal extrusion and spinning disk
		11.2.6 General principle
	11.3 Equipment
		11.3.1 Nisco engineering
		11.3.2 Buchi
		11.3.3 BRACE
		11.3.4 Freund Corporation
		11.3.5 Other annular jet systems
	11.4 Materials
		11.4.1 Encapsulation of hydrophobic materials
		11.4.2 Encapsulation of hydrophilic agents
	11.5 Conclusion
	References
12 Monodispersed microencapsulation technologies
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Monodisperse particle fabrication technologies
		12.2.1 Microfluidics
		12.2.2 Electrohydrodynamic spraying
		12.2.3 Jet cutting
		12.2.4 Rotary disk atomization
		12.2.5 Vibratory process
		12.2.6 Flow focusing
		12.2.7 Vibratory process combined with a carrier stream
	12.3 Conclusion
	References
13 Microencapsulation by complex coacervation processes
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Historical theories and recent developments
	13.3 Selection of shell wall material
		13.3.1 Proteins
		13.3.2 Polysaccharides
	13.4 Coacervation encapsulation process
	13.5 Parameters in coacervation
		13.5.1 Material properties
		13.5.2 pH
		13.5.3 Ionic strength
		13.5.4 Temperature
		13.5.5 Mixing ratio
		13.5.6 Total polymer concentration
		13.5.7 Shear strength and rheology
		13.5.8 Charge density
	13.6 Characterization of coacervate microcapsules
		13.6.1 Structure and morphology
		13.6.2 Rheological properties
		13.6.3 Size and size distribution of microcapsules
		13.6.4 Encapsulation efficiency
	13.7 Applications
		13.7.1 Stability
		13.7.2 Controlled release
		13.7.3 Bioavailability
		13.7.4 Limitation of complex coacervation microencapsulation processes
	13.8 Conclusion
	References
14 Application of liposomes in the food industry
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 What are liposomes?
	14.3 Liposome stability
		14.3.1 Hydrolysis of liposomes
		14.3.2 Effect of buffer and pH
		14.3.3 Oxidation of unsaturated phospholipids
		14.3.4 Saturated ether lipids
		14.3.5 Application of liposome as a solubility tool
		14.3.6 Application of piposomes in the food and beverage industry
		14.3.7 Application of liposomes in protecting small molecules and enzymes
		14.3.8 Liposome encapsulation of antimicrobials
		14.3.9 Application of liposomes in the accelerated ripening of cheese
		14.3.10 Encapsulation of Maillard browning reagent in liposomes
	14.4 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
15 Nanoencapsulation in the food industry
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Technology advantages
	15.3 Classification of nanoencapsulated systems
	15.4 Liquid–liquid systems
	15.5 Microemulsions
	15.6 Nanoemulsions
	15.7 Liposomes
	15.8 Solid–lipid nanoparticles
	15.9 Solid–solid systems
	15.10 Nanofibers
	15.11 Conclusion
	References
16 Selection of materials for microencapsulation
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Morphological design
	16.3 Material selection
	16.4 Hydrophilic materials
		16.4.1 Proteins
		16.4.2 Carbohydrates
	16.5 Hydrophobic materials
	16.6 Conclusions
	References
17 Starch-based materials for microencapsulation
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Starch and starch modifications
		17.2.1 The nature of starches
		17.2.2 Food starch modifications
			17.2.2.1 Chemical modifications
			17.2.2.2 Physical treatments
			17.2.2.3 Enzymatic treatment
			17.2.2.4 Hydrophobic modification
	17.3 Characteristics of octenyl succinic anhydride starches
	17.4 Using modified starches for microencapsulation
		17.4.1 Typical spray drying practices using octenyl succinic anhydride starches
		17.4.2 A dynamic model and its relevance to matrix materials
		17.4.3 Case studies
			17.4.3.1 Case 1—flavor encapsulation in the spray drying process
			17.4.3.2 Case 2—vitamin encapsulation
			17.4.3.3 Case 3—fat encapsulation
			17.4.3.4 Case 4—gelatin replacement in spray congealing
			17.4.3.5 Case 5—extrusion
			17.4.3.6 Case 6—plating
	17.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
18 Use of milk proteins for encapsulation of food ingredients
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Milk proteins and their function in encapsulation
		18.2.1 Milk proteins
		18.2.2 Function of milk proteins in encapsulation
		18.2.3 Encapsulation technologies used when formulating with milk proteins
	18.3 Encapsulation systems using caseins and whey proteins
		18.3.1 Milk proteins and processes for encapsulating hydrophobic components
		18.3.2 Milk proteins and processes for encapsulating hydrophilic components
		18.3.3 Milk proteins and processes for encapsulating probiotics
	18.4 Milk proteins in combination with other materials as the encapsulating matrix
		18.4.1 Milk proteins in combination with other materials and processes for encapsulating hydrophobic components
		18.4.2 Milk proteins in combination with other materials and processes for encapsulating hydrophilic components
		18.4.3 Milk proteins in combination with other materials and processes for encapsulating probiotics
	18.5 Patent-based strategies
	18.6 Conclusion
	References
19 Natural and clean label ingredients for microencapsulation
	19.1 Introduction and background
		19.1.1 Clean label—definition, origin, trend
		19.1.2 Microencapsulation of active ingredients and clean label trends
		19.1.3 Microencapsulation carrier materials falling out of favor
		19.1.4 Communicating clean label
		19.1.5 Clean label microencapsulation—a regulatory perspective
		19.1.6 Natural flavors may contain synthetic nonflavoring components
		19.1.7 “Natural foods” litigation
	19.2 Natural macrostructures
		19.2.1 Oleosomes
		19.2.2 Pollen
		19.2.3 Yeast
	19.3 Natural ingredients
		19.3.1 Carbohydrates
			19.3.1.1 Gum Arabic
			19.3.1.2 Sprouted rice flour
			19.3.1.3 Angum gum
			19.3.1.4 Prickly pear mucilage
			19.3.1.5 Inulin
			19.3.1.6 Cereal beta glucans
			19.3.1.7 Alginate
			19.3.1.8 Chitosan
		19.3.2 Proteins
			19.3.2.1 Soy proteins
			19.3.2.2 Corn protein
			19.3.2.3 Other plant proteins
			19.3.2.4 Milk proteins
		19.3.3 Fats and waxes
		19.3.4 Calcium carbonate
		19.3.5 Surfactants
	19.4 Conclusion
	References
20 Gelatin and other proteins for microencapsulation
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Gelatin
		20.2.1 Gelatin manufacture: from collagen to gelatin
		20.2.2 Gelation of gelatin
		20.2.3 Gelatin as shell material in microencapsulation
			20.2.3.1 Spray-drying
			20.2.3.2 Gelation
			20.2.3.3 Coacervation
	20.3 Soy protein
		20.3.1 Spray-drying
		20.3.2 Coacervation
		20.3.3 Gelation
	20.4 Zein protein
		20.4.1 Spray-drying
		20.4.2 Solvent evaporation
	20.5 Pea protein
		20.5.1 Spray-drying
		20.5.2 Coacervation
		20.5.3 Gelation
	20.6 Other proteins
	20.7 Summary
	Acknowledgments
	References
21 Hydrocolloids and gums as encapsulating agents
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Materials
		21.2.1 Gum Arabic
			21.2.1.1 Modified gum Arabic
		21.2.2 Alginates
	21.3 Applications
		21.3.1 Antioxidants
		21.3.2 Flavors
			21.3.2.1 Case study—gum Arabic as a wall material for spray dried flavors
			21.3.2.2 Case study—gum Arabic in combination with maltodextrin as a wall material for spray dried flavors
		21.3.3 Microorganisms
		21.3.4 Other applications
			21.3.4.1 Case study—gum Arabic as a wall material for medium-chain triglyceride oil
	21.4 Conclusion
	References
22 Fats and waxes in microencapsulation of food ingredients
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Structural diversity in fats and waxes
		22.2.1 Hydrocarbon-rich substances
		22.2.2 Simple lipids
		22.2.3 Lipid-derived substances
	22.3 Physicochemical properties of fats and waxes
		22.3.1 Melt and crystallization in fats and waxes
		22.3.2 Moisture barrier properties of fats and waxes
		22.3.3 Surface activity in fats and waxes
		22.3.4 Chemical stability of fats and waxes
		22.3.5 Physical stability of fats and waxes
	22.4 Lipids in microencapsulation applications
		22.4.1 Techniques
		22.4.2 Applications
			22.4.2.1 Flavors
			22.4.2.2 Vitamins and minerals
			22.4.2.3 Food additives
			22.4.2.4 Enzymes and microorganisms
	22.5 Conclusion
	References
23 Yeast cells and yeast-based materials for microencapsulation
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Description of the yeast cell as encapsulation material
	23.3 The yeast cell encapsulation process
	23.4 Parameters that affect yeast encapsulation performance
		23.4.1 Origin and pretreatment of yeast cells used for encapsulation
		23.4.2 The active ingredient
		23.4.3 Medium of encapsulation
		23.4.4 Encapsulation temperature
		23.4.5 Mass ratio compound:yeast cells
	23.5 Properties of yeast microcapsules
		23.5.1 Encapsulation of hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds and high loading
		23.5.2 Yeast encapsulation and protection
		23.5.3 Release properties and controlled/targeted delivery of yeast encapsulated compounds
		23.5.4 Yeast encapsulation and sensory evaluation
		23.5.5 Antioxidant properties and solubility of the yeast encapsulated compound
		23.5.6 Nutritional value and anticancer properties of yeast cells and yeast microcapsules
	23.6 Applications of yeast microcapsules in the food industry
	23.7 Yeast encapsulation patents
	23.8 Conclusion
	References
24 Testing tools and physical, chemical, and microbiological characterization of microencapsulated systems
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Physical characterization
		24.2.1 Morphology and size distribution
		24.2.2 Electron microscopy
		24.2.3 Particle sizing methods
		24.2.4 Mechanical strength
		24.2.5 Glass transition temperature and degree of crystallinity
		24.2.6 Flowability
	24.3 Chemical characterization
		24.3.1 Gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography
		24.3.2 Flavor active dispersion
		24.3.3 Flavor retention and stability
			24.3.3.1 Flavor retention
			24.3.3.2 Flavor stability
			24.3.3.3 Characterization of flavor release: methods, rates, and mechanisms
				24.3.3.3.1 Release rates
				24.3.3.3.2 Mechanism of release
					24.3.3.3.2.1 Release by physical rupture
					24.3.3.3.2.2 Release by diffusion
					24.3.3.3.2.3 Release by dissolution or melting
					24.3.3.3.2.4 Release by biodegradation
			24.3.3.4 Oxidation
		24.3.4 Safety testing
			24.3.4.1 Toxicology
			24.3.4.2 Microbiology
	24.4 Conclusion
	References
25 Stability characterization and sensory testing in food products containing microencapsulants
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Assessing stability
	25.3 Factors affecting wall stability
		25.3.1 Surface morphology and characteristics
			25.3.1.1 Microscopy
			25.3.1.2 Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis
		25.3.2 Particle size
		25.3.3 Moisture content and water activity
	25.4 Factors affecting core stability
		25.4.1 Environmental factors affecting core stability
			25.4.1.1 Light
			25.4.1.2 pH
			25.4.1.3 Temperature
		25.4.2 Effect of oxidation on core stability
			25.4.2.1 Measurement of core oxidation
			25.4.2.2 Measurement of surface oxidation
	25.5 Sensory impacts of microencapsulated ingredients in foods
		25.5.1 The field of sensory evaluation
	25.6 Sensory attributes and human senses
		25.6.1 Appearance and vision
		25.6.2 Taste and gustation
		25.6.3 Odor and olfaction
		25.6.4 Texture and touch
	25.7 Considerations for sensory testing of microencapsulated food ingredients
	25.8 Choosing a sensory methodology for testing
	25.9 Sensory impacts of microencapsulated food ingredients
		25.9.1 Textural impacts of microencapsulated food ingredients
		25.9.2 Flavor and odor impacts of microencapsulated food ingredients
		25.9.3 The impact on hedonic ratings and consumer perception due to microencapsulated food ingredients
	25.10 Resources for detailed case studies on microencapsulation
	25.11 Conclusions
	References
26 Regulatory considerations of encapsulation used in the food industry
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Animal derivatives
	26.3 Allergens
	26.4 Genetic modification and organic
	26.5 “Natural” claims
	26.6 Nutritional content
	26.7 Safe consumption
	26.8 Safe handling
	26.9 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
27 Novel concepts and challenges of flavor microencapsulation
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 Challenges of flavor encapsulation
		27.2.1 Typical flavor composition
		27.2.2 Characterization of flavor phase equilibrium through the use of vapor pressure, molecular size, solubility, taste an...
			27.2.2.1 Vapor pressure
			27.2.2.2 Molecular size and transport
			27.2.2.3 Phase equilibrium
				27.2.2.3.1 Chemical potential and intermolecular forces
				27.2.2.3.2 Solubility, linear solvation energy relationships, and flavor delivery
	27.3 Summary of common flavor microencapsulation techniques
		27.3.1 Spray-drying
		27.3.2 Spray-chilling
		27.3.3 Melt injection
		27.3.4 Melt extrusion
		27.3.5 Molecular inclusion complexation
		27.3.6 Coacervation
		27.3.7 Annular jet and biopolymer microgels
		27.3.8 Novel techniques
			27.3.8.1 Evaporation-induced self-assembly
			27.3.8.2 Electrostatic spray atomization and spray-drying
			27.3.8.3 Nanotechnology for flavor microencapsulation
	27.4 Summary of flavor microencapsulation materials
	27.5 Applications of microencapsulated flavor
		27.5.1 Controlled release
			27.5.1.1 Chewing gum
				27.5.1.1.1 Upfront flavor release
				27.5.1.1.2 Sustained flavor release
				27.5.1.1.3 Flavor-changing chewing gum
			27.5.1.2 Flavor-changing ice cream
			27.5.1.3 Encapsulated flavor in a beverage straw
		27.5.2 Protections
			27.5.2.1 Chewing gum
			27.5.2.2 Hard candy
			27.5.2.3 Bakery products
			27.5.2.4 Dry mix beverage
		27.5.3 Taste masking
			27.5.3.1 Masking of fish odor
			27.5.3.2 Caffeine
			27.5.3.3 Flavor masking by molecular inclusion
	27.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
28 Flavor release and application in chewing gum and confections
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Why microencapsulate flavors?
	28.3 Microencapsulation forms
	28.4 Microencapsulation forms—other types
	28.5 Chewing gum applications—designing for customized performance
	28.6 Microencapsulated flavors—when to use them?
	28.7 To be effective, microencapsulated flavors also require sustained and long-lasting sweetness and sourness
	28.8 Where is microencapsulated flavor applied in chewing gum applications?
	28.9 Challenges in microencapsulating flavors
	28.10 Other confectionery applications
	28.11 Chewing gum patent review—main companies: Wrigley (now Mars Wrigley), Mondelez (former Warner–Lambert/Cadbury–Adams/K...
	28.12 Conclusion
	Appendix 1
		Chewing gum patent review
	References
29 Protection and delivery of probiotics for use in foods
	29.1 Introduction
	29.2 Microencapsulation and delivery concepts for probiotics
		29.2.1 Entrapment in polymer matrix
		29.2.2 Fat and polymer coating
		29.2.3 Extrusion–spheronization
	29.3 Drying methods
		29.3.1 Freeze-drying
		29.3.2 Drying by glass formation
		29.3.3 Drying by foam formation
		29.3.4 Controlled low-temperature vacuum dehydration
		29.3.5 Electrostatic spray-drying
		29.3.6 Perspective on drying methods
	29.4 Delivery forms
		29.4.1 Tablets
		29.4.2 Soft gel capsule
		29.4.3 Oil carrier
		29.4.4 Probiotic gummies
	29.5 Methods for estimating process loss and product shelf-life
		29.5.1 Epifluorescence microscopic assessment
		29.5.2 Estimating storage shelf-life
	29.6 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
30 Micro- and nanoencapsulation of omega-3 and other nutritional fatty acids: challenges and novel solutions
	30.1 Introduction
	30.2 The health benefits of omega-3 and other nutritional fatty acids
	30.3 Microencapsulation for the protection and delivery of omega-3 and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids
		30.3.1 Spray-drying and other spray-based technologies
		30.3.2 Nano spray-drying
		30.3.3 Freeze-drying
		30.3.4 Complex coacervation
		30.3.5 Nanoemulsions and self-emulsified emulsions
		30.3.6 Other microencapsulation technologies
	30.4 Oxidative stability and bioavailability
		30.4.1 Chemical properties and oxidation stability of encapsulated fatty acids
		30.4.2 Bioavailability and bioequivalence
	30.5 Novel delivery solutions with a specific focus on brain health
		30.5.1 Case study I: the “Axona” story
		30.5.2 Case study II: the “Souvenaid” story
		30.5.3 Examples of novel delivery solutions
		30.5.4 Multinutrient and multimodal approaches for elderly’s brain health
	30.6 Concluding remarks
	References
31 Microencapsulation of vitamins, minerals, and nutraceuticals for food applications
	31.1 Microencapsulation as a tool for effective delivery of micronutrients and nutraceuticals
		31.1.1 Importance of microencapsulation in fortified and functional food development
		31.1.2 Microencapsulation technologies for developing fortified and functional foods
		31.1.3 Encapsulants commonly used for delivery of micronutrients or nutraceuticals
	31.2 Criteria for developing microencapsulated delivery systems for micronutrients and nutraceuticals
		31.2.1 In vitro bioavailability of micronutrients and nutraceuticals
		31.2.2 Encapsulation efficiency
		31.2.3 Microcapsule morphology and size
		31.2.4 Storage stability
	31.3 Development of fortified and functional foods
		31.3.1 Importance of food fortification in fighting micronutrient malnutrition
		31.3.2 Technical challenges in fortification of staple foods
		31.3.3 New trends of tutraceutical delivery through functional foods
	31.4 Case study: technical approaches to the fortification of staple foods
		31.4.1 Salt
			31.4.1.1 Microencapsulation of iodine by spray drying and fluidized bedd
			31.4.1.2 Encapsulation of ferrous fumarate to mimic salt grains
			31.4.1.3 Attachment of spray-dried ferrous fumarate microcapsules to coarse salt
		31.4.2 Rice
			31.4.2.1 Fortification of extruded rice grains with vitamin A
			31.4.2.2 Fortification of extruded rice grains with multiple micronutrients
		31.4.3 Application of the extrusion-based microencapsulation technology platform to nutraceutical delivery through function...
	31.5 Conclusion and perspectives
	References
32 Development and scale-up of microencapsulation-based technology for multimicronutrient fortification of salt
	32.1 Introduction
	32.2 Generation I: double fortified salt with iodine encapsulation
	32.3 Generation II: double fortified salt—pilot and commercial scale trials with fluidized bed technology
		a Granulation
		b Coating
	32.4 Generation III: double fortified salt with extruded iron premix—pilot-testing in India
	32.5 Challenges and solutions during scale-up for double fortified salt technology
	32.6 Engineering extension of microencapsulation technologies
	32.7 Interaction of micronutrients
	32.8 Development of multiple micronutrient premixes
	32.9 Impact of the salt fortification technology on the bioaccessibility and stability of the micronutrients in cooked food
	32.10 Full-scale production of DFS, TFS, QFS, and MFS in India
	32.11 Future directions
	32.12 Summary
	Acknowledgment
	References
33 Encapsulation for taste modification
	33.1 Introduction
	33.2 Flavor perception
		33.2.1 Taste
		33.2.2 Smell
		33.2.3 Convergence of taste and smell
	33.3 Taste modification strategies
	33.4 Encapsulation as a taste modification tool
		33.4.1 Encapsulation techniques
			33.4.1.1 Matrix systems
			33.4.1.2 Reservoir systems
			33.4.1.3 Molecular inclusion
		33.4.2 Carrier materials
	33.5 Dissolution testing and sensory evaluation
	33.6 Conclusion
	References
34 Microencapsulated enzymes in food applications
	34.1 Introduction
	34.2 Food enzyme market
		34.2.1 Enzyme manufacturers
		34.2.2 Enzyme production
	34.3 Enzyme properties and challenges
		34.3.1 Enzyme systems
		34.3.2 Safety and hygiene
	34.4 Encapsulation
		34.4.1 Spray-drying and agglomeration
		34.4.2 Spray-chilling or prilling
		34.4.3 Spray coating
		34.4.4 Spray granulation
		34.4.5 High shear/wet granulation
		34.4.6 Extrusion
		34.4.7 Liposomes
	34.5 Food applications
		34.5.1 Baking
		34.5.2 Sweeteners
		34.5.3 Dairy
		34.5.4 Food supplements
	34.6 Conclusion
	References
35 Advances in lecithin-based nanoemulsions within the animal and human nutritional markets
	35.1 Introduction
	35.2 Emulsion overview
	35.3 Oil-in-water nanoemulsions
		35.3.1 Composition
		35.3.2 Composition of nanoemulsions
			35.3.2.1 Lipophilic phase
			35.3.2.2 Hydrophilic phase
			35.3.2.3 Emulsifiers
		35.3.3 Preparation of nanoemulsions
	35.4 Lecithin-based nanoemulsions
		35.4.1 Characteristics of lecithin nanoemulsions
		35.4.2 Benefits of lecithin nanoemulsions
			35.4.2.1 Ease of addition
			35.4.2.2 Protection of nutritional payload
			35.4.2.3 Increased bioavailability
	35.5 Advances and future endeavors for lecithin-based nanoemulsions
		35.5.1 Loading characteristics of lecithin nanoemulsions
		35.5.2 Dry-powdered form of nanoemulsions
		35.5.3 Economics
	35.6 Conclusion
	References
Index
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