Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis: Implications on Health

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Gut-Brain Axis and Human Health
	1: Gut Microbes: Influencers of Human Brain
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 The Gut Microbiota
			1.2.1 Alterations and Factors Impacting the Gut Microbiota
			1.2.2 The Ways of Harnessing Human Microbiota
				1.2.2.1 Mechanism of Sample Study for Animal Experiments
				1.2.2.2 Faecal Transplantation
				1.2.2.3 Dietary Intervention
			1.2.3 Functional Characteristics of Gut Microbiota
		1.3 The Functional Relation in Intestinal Microbiota and Brain Using Animal Models
		1.4 Brain Development and Microbiota
			1.4.1 Types of Barriers
			1.4.2 Barriers in the Intestine
			1.4.3 Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
		1.5 Brain-Gut-Microbiota Axis
			1.5.1 Diagnostic Evidences
		1.6 Effect of Prebiotics and Probiotics on the BGM (Brain-Gut-Microbiota)
		1.7 Gut Microbiota Interaction and the Immune System Response
		1.8 Role of BGM in Diseases
			1.8.1  Gastrointestinal Disorders
			1.8.2 Food Addiction
			1.8.3 Psychiatric Diseases Associated with Brain
				1.8.3.1 Depression and Anxiety
				1.8.3.2 Autism Spectrum Disorder
			1.8.4 Neurological Disorders
				1.8.4.1 Parkinson´s Disease
				1.8.4.2 Brain Stroke and Injury
				1.8.4.3 Alzheimer´s Disease
				1.8.4.4 Epilepsy
		References
	2: Current Insights on the Modulation of Gut Microbiome and Its Effect on Human Health
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Probiotics in the Treatment of Gut Diseases
			2.2.1 Obesity
			2.2.2 Infectious Diarrhea
			2.2.3 Type 2 Diabetes
			2.2.4 Lactose Intolerance
			2.2.5 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
			2.2.6 Irritable Bowel Syndrome
			2.2.7 Colon Cancer
			2.2.8 Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
			2.2.9 Osteoarthritis
			2.2.10 Celiac Disease
		2.3 Conclusion
		References
	3: Trust Your Gut: The Human Gut Microbiome in Health and Disease
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 The Nature and Nurture of Gut Microbiome
		3.3 Origin, Composition, Metabolism, and Development of Gut Microbiome
		3.4 Features and High-Throughput Diversity of the Gastrointestinal Tract Microbiota
		3.5 The Early Years of Life Influenced by Our Intestinal Microbiome
			3.5.1 Gut Microbiota Before Birth
			3.5.2 Development of Microbiome During Labor
			3.5.3 Development of the Microbiota After Birth
			3.5.4 Functional Maturation of the Gut Microbiome
		3.6 The Human Gut Bifidobacteria
			3.6.1 Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics
		3.7 Function of Microbiota in Human Health
			3.7.1 Function of Microbiota in Human Breast Milk
			3.7.2 Microbial Diversity for Human Health
			3.7.3 Function of Microbiome in Immune System Development, Host Protection, and Metabolism Homeostasis
				3.7.3.1 Immunosenescence and Microbiota
			3.7.4 Obesity Alters Gut Microbial Ecology
				3.7.4.1 Gut Microbiome and Obesity
			3.7.5 What Is Gut-Brain Axis and Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis?
				3.7.5.1 Stroke Development and Microbiota Gut-Brain Axis
		References
	4: Virome and Microbiome Interaction and Their Implication in the Human Gut Health
		4.1 Introduction
			4.1.1 Emerging View of the Human Virome
			4.1.2 Human Gut Microbiota Composition
		4.2 Human Gut Virome Composition: Main Players
			4.2.1 Eukaryotic Viruses
			4.2.2 Bacteriophages
		4.3 Virome Functions Within the Human Gut Microbiome
		4.4 Tools for Human Virome Identification
			4.4.1 Sampling
			4.4.2 Genome Purification and Concentration
				4.4.2.1 Tangential Flow Filtration (TFF)
				4.4.2.2 Cesium Chloride (CsCl) Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation
				4.4.2.3 Precipitation with Polyethylene Glycol
				4.4.2.4 Chloroform and Nuclease Treatment
				4.4.2.5 Flow-Cytometry-Based Methods
			4.4.3 Extraction and Amplification of VLP-Derived DNA
				4.4.3.1 Multiple Displacement Amplification (MDA)
				4.4.3.2 Linker Amplified Shotgun Library (LASL)
				4.4.3.3 Random Amplified Shotgun Library (RASL)
				4.4.3.4 Adaptase-Linker Amplification (A-LA)
				4.4.3.5 Virus Discovery cDNA-AFLP (VIDISCA) Technique
				4.4.3.6 Fully Automated Virus Extraction
			4.4.4 Sequencing Strategies
				4.4.4.1 Pyrosequencing
				4.4.4.2 Illumina Sequencing
			4.4.5 Quality Control
				4.4.5.1 Viral Quantification
					Epifluorescence Microscopy
					Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
				4.4.5.2 Prophage Identification Applications
			4.4.6 Computational Approaches for Characterizing Sequenced Viromes
				4.4.6.1 Similarity-Dependent or Reference-Based Approach
				4.4.6.2 Similarity-Independent or De Novo Approaches
		4.5 Virome-Associated Dysbiosis
			4.5.1 Type 1 Diabetes (T1D)
			4.5.2 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM)
			4.5.3 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
			4.5.4 Cancer
		4.6 Communication Between Enteric Virome and Human Gut Probiotics: Implication on Gut Health
			4.6.1 Probiotics and Bacteriophages
			4.6.2 Strategies of Interactions Between Prokaryotes and Viruses in the Gut
			4.6.3 Role of Lytic Phages in the Gut
			4.6.4 Horizontal Gene Transfer Between Bacteriophages and Bacteria
			4.6.5 Pathogenic Interactions
			4.6.6 Gaps in Knowledge
		4.7 Human Virome Therapeutic Implications and Future Directions
			4.7.1 Importance of the Enteric Virome in Fecal Microbial Transplantation
			4.7.2 Phage Therapy
			4.7.3 Enteric Virome Associated with Gastrointestinal Diseases
				4.7.3.1 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
				4.7.3.2 Celiac Disease Autoimmunity (CDA)
				4.7.3.3 Enteric Virome Implication in Obesity and Diabetes
				4.7.3.4 Enteric Virome Implication in Parkinson´s Disease
			4.7.4 Eukaryotic Viruses and Their Implications in Gastrointestinal Diseases
			4.7.5 Challenges and Future Directions
		References
	5: Interactions of Microbiome for Gut-Brain Axis Health
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Profile of Gut Microbiota
		5.3 Signaling Mechanism Associated behind MGBA
		5.4 Role of Gut Microbiota in the Development of Brain Behavior
		5.5 Control of Microbiota on the Brain Through Nervous Pathway
		5.6 Controlling of the Immune System by Gut-Microbiome
			5.6.1 Innate Immunity
			5.6.2 Adaptive Immunity
		5.7 Brain Disorder and Altered Microbiota
		5.8 Therapeutic Target of Gut-Brain Axis
		5.9 Conclusion and Future Aspects
		References
	6: Diet-Gut Microbiota-Brain Axis and IgE-Mediated Food Allergy
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Food Allergy
		6.3 Gut Microbiome and Allergy
		6.4 Diet-Gut Microbiota Interaction and Allergy
		6.5 Modulation of Gut Microbiota as a Preventive Measure
		6.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	7: Gut Microbiome Composition as the Key Factor for Immunomodulation in the Host
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Interdependence of Gut Microbiota and Host Immune Functions
			7.2.1 Gut Microbiota-Dependent Immune System Development and Maturation
			7.2.2 Role of the Immune System in Shaping Gut Microbiota Complexity
		7.3 Microbiota Released Metabolite and Immune System Modulation
		7.4 Mechanistic View of Host Innate Immune System and Microbiota Interaction
		7.5 Consequences of Mismatched Interaction Between Gut Microbiota and Immune Cells
		7.6 Combating Mismatched Gut Microbiota and Immune System Interactions
		7.7 Future Perspectives
		References
	8: Gut-Brain Axis: Role of the Gut Microbiome on Human Health
		8.1 Introduction: Gut Microbiome and Brain Broadcast
			8.1.1 Composition and Dynamics of Healthy Adult Microbiota
			8.1.2 Formation of Gut Microbiota During the Early Stages of Life
			8.1.3 What Consists Gut Microbiota?
			8.1.4 Gut-Brain Axis
			8.1.5 How Gut Microbiota Communicates with the Brain?
				8.1.5.1 Neuroanatomical Pathway
				8.1.5.2 Neuroendocrine-HPA Axis
				8.1.5.3 Immunological Pathway
				8.1.5.4 Neurotransmitters Regulating Gut-Brain Axis
		8.2 Gut-Microbiome-Brain Implications on Physical Health
			8.2.1 Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
			8.2.2 Metabolic Diseases
			8.2.3 Reproductive Health
		8.3 Gut-Microbiome-Brain Implications on Mental Health
			8.3.1 Stress/Depression
			8.3.2 Autism
			8.3.3 Parkinson´s Disease
			8.3.4 Alzheimer´s Disease
		8.4 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Modulation of Gut Brain Axis Through Pro- and prebiotics
	9: Functional Role of Prebiotic Supplement in Brain Signalling
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Probiotics
		9.3 Prebiotics
		9.4 Prebiotics Role in Supporting Gut Microbial Growth
		9.5 Brain Signalling (Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis)
			9.5.1 Neural Pathway
			9.5.2 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
			9.5.3 Tryptophan and 5-Hydroxytryptamine Metabolism
			9.5.4 Immune System
			9.5.5 Gut Hormonal Response
		9.6 Factors Affecting the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis
			9.6.1 Role of Diet in the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis
			9.6.2 Role of Age in the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis
			9.6.3 Role of Sex in the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis
			9.6.4 Role of Drugs in the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis
		9.7 Abnormalities in Brain Signalling
		9.8 Disease Occurring Due to Abnormalities in Brain Signalling
		9.9 Clinical and Preclinical Findings Related to Psychiatric Changes
		9.10 Prebiotics Role in Overcoming the Abnormal Psychiatric Changes
		9.11 Prebiotic Supplement in Overcoming the Psychiatric Changes
		9.12 Conclusion
		References
	10: Probiotic Mechanism to Modulate the Gut-Brain Axis (GBA)
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Probiotics and GBA
		10.3 Bidirectional Communications Within the GBA
			10.3.1 Possible Mechanisms Through Which Probiotics Can Modulate the GBA
				10.3.1.1 Neural Regulatory Interactions Between the Gut and the Brain
				10.3.1.2 Immune-Facilitated Communication Between the Gut and the Brain
				10.3.1.3 GBA Regulation by Neuroactive Compounds and Metabolites
				10.3.1.4 Central Nervous System Regulates Gut Microbiota
		10.4 Modulation of the GBA by Probiotics
			10.4.1 In Vivo Studies
			10.4.2 Clinical Studies
		10.5 Conclusions
		References
	11: Gut-Brain Axis: Probiotic Interactions and Implications for Human Mental Health
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Gut Physiology
			11.2.1 Neural Control of the Gut
		11.3 Role of the Gut in the Immune System
		11.4 Probiotics
		11.5 Prebiotics
		11.6 Disorders of the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis
			11.6.1 Stress, Anxiety and Depression
			11.6.2 Alzheimer´s Disease
			11.6.3 Parkinson´s Disease
			11.6.4 Multiple Sclerosis
			11.6.5 Autism
			11.6.6 Schizophrenia
			11.6.7 Alcohol Dependence
			11.6.8 Cognition/Behaviour
		References
	12: Probiotic: A Sustainable Approach Towards Healthy Food
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Characteristics of Probiotic Bacteria
			12.2.1 Species of Probiotic Bacteria
				12.2.1.1 Lactobacillus acidophilus
				12.2.1.2 Lactobacillus rhamnosus
				12.2.1.3 Leuconostoc mesenteroides
				12.2.1.4 Weissella confusa
				12.2.1.5 Bifidobacterium bifidum and breve
				12.2.1.6 Streptococcus thermophilus and salivarius
				12.2.1.7 Bacillus coagulans
				12.2.1.8 Bacillus subtilis
		12.3 Mode of Action of Probiotics
			12.3.1 Mechanism of Action of Probiotics in the Human Gut
			12.3.2 Stability and Sustainability of Probiotic Strains
			12.3.3 Probiotic Foods
				12.3.3.1 Yogurt
				12.3.3.2 Cheese
				12.3.3.3 Kefir
				12.3.3.4 Kimchi
				12.3.3.5 Miso Soup
				12.3.3.6 Green Olives
			12.3.4 Storage of Probiotic Bacterial Supplement
			12.3.5 Health Benefits of Probiotics
				12.3.5.1 Cure of Stomach Problems
				12.3.5.2 Reduce Anxiety and Stress
				12.3.5.3 Reduce the Risk of Breast Cancer
				12.3.5.4 Reduce Bad Cholesterol
				12.3.5.5 Reduce Allergy
		References
	13: Production and Biofunctionality of Milk-Derived Bioactive Peptides
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Bioactive Peptides
			13.2.1 Production of Bioactive Peptides
				13.2.1.1 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
				13.2.1.2 Microbial Fermentation
		13.3 Bioactive Peptides Obtained from Milk Proteins
		13.4 Biofunctional Properties of Bioactive Peptides
			13.4.1 Effect on Cardiovascular System
				13.4.1.1 Antihypertensive Peptides
				13.4.1.2 Antioxidative Peptides
				13.4.1.3 Hypocholesterolemic Peptides
				13.4.1.4 Antithrombotic Peptides
			13.4.2 Effect on the Gastrointestinal System
				13.4.2.1 Mineral Binding Peptides
				13.4.2.2 Antidiabetic Peptides
				13.4.2.3 Antiobesity Peptides
				13.4.2.4 Antimicrobial Peptides
			13.4.3 Effect on the Immune System
				13.4.3.1 Immunomodulatory Peptides
		13.5 Conclusions and Future Directions
		References
	14: Role of Probiotics in Allergic Diseases
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Probiotics
			14.2.1 Characteristics of Probiotics
			14.2.2 Mechanisms of Action of Probiotics in Allergic Disease
			14.2.3 Role of Probiotic in Atopic Dermatitis
			14.2.4 Role of Probiotic in Asthma
			14.2.5 Role of Probiotic in Allergic Rhinitis
			14.2.6 Role of Probiotic in Food Allergy
		References
	15: Probiotics Suppress the Depression: A Look at the Possible Mechanisms of Action
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Neurological Disorders and Gut-Brain Axis
		15.3 Probiotics and Depression
		15.4 Mechanisms of Probiotics´ Antidepressant Effect
			15.4.1 Modulation of Inflammation
			15.4.2 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis and Neurotransmitter Signaling
		15.5 Conclusion
		References
	16: Role of Probiotics in Diabetes Control
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Gut Microbiota
		16.3 Diabetes and Probiotics
			16.3.1 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)
			16.3.2 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM)
			16.3.3 Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM)
		16.4 Mechanisms of Probiotics´ Action
			16.4.1 Modulation of Inflammation and Oxidative Stress
			16.4.2 Probiotics and Endocannabinoid (eCB) System
			16.4.3 Appetite-Regulating Hormones and Eating Behavior
		16.5 Conclusion
		References
	17: Role of Probiotics in Autism Spectrum Disorders
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Gut-Brain Axis
		17.3 History of Autism and Causes
			17.3.1 Neurodegenerative Disorders (NDDs)
			17.3.2 Role of Microbes Present in Autistic Patients
			17.3.3 Role of Probiotics in Overcoming the Disease
		17.4 Conclusions
		References
	18: From Probiotics to Postbiotics: Key to Microbiome and Health
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Postbiotics: Definition and Concept
		18.3 Sources of Postbiotics
		18.4 Forms or Types of Postbiotics
		18.5 Production Methods of Postbiotics
		18.6 Applications/Benefactions of Postbiotics
			18.6.1 Immune Modulation
			18.6.2 Anticancer Properties
			18.6.3 Luminal and Mucosal Effects
			18.6.4 IBS/IBD and Other Conditions
			18.6.5 Neural Diseases
			18.6.6 Diabetes
			18.6.7 Antimicrobial Potentials
			18.6.8 Miscellaneous Applications
		18.7 Future Prospects as Concluding Remarks
		References
	19: Effect of Probiotics on Gut Microbiota and Brain Interactions in the Context of Neurodegenerative and Neurodevelopmental D...
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 History of Probiotics
		19.3 Gut-Brain Microbial Axis: Connection of the Gut and the Brain
		19.4 Role of Microbiota in the Gut-Brain Microbial Axis
		19.5 Gut Dysbiosis and Human Health
		19.6 Psychobiotics and Their Role in Mental Health
		19.7 Psychobiotics in Neurodegenerative and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
			19.7.1 Alzheimer´s Disease (AD)
			19.7.2 Parkinson´s Disease (PD)
			19.7.3 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
			19.7.4 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
			19.7.5 Tourette Syndrome (TS)
			19.7.6 Insomnia
		19.8 Conclusion
		References
	20: Impact of Probiotics in Modulation of Gut Microbiome
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Probiotic and Gut Microbiota
		20.3 Modulation of the Intestinal Microbiota by the Use of Probiotics
		20.4 How Probiotics Modulate the Intestinal Microbiota?
		20.5 Modulation of Gut Microbiota-Brain Axis by Probiotics
		20.6 Conclusions
		References
	21: Potential of Probiotics in Improving Gut Health
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Probiotics: Current Importance and Future
		21.3 Gut Microbiota and Their Effect on Human Health
		21.4 Probiotics as Nutritional Aid for Human
		21.5 Probiotics in Constipation and Gastric Motility
		21.6 Implications of Probiotics on the Maternal-Neonatal Interface: Gut Microbiota, Immunomodulation, and Autoimmunity
		21.7 Probiotics for Animals´ Gut Health
		21.8 Safety of Probiotics
		21.9 Modulation of Brain Function via the Gut-Brain Axis
		21.10 The Feature Ahead of Probiotics, Ecobiotics
		References
	22: Probiotic and Prebiotic Interactions and Their Role in Maintaining Host Immunity
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Probiotics
			22.2.1 Sources of Probiotics
			22.2.2 Health Benefits of Probiotics
		22.3 Prebiotics
			22.3.1 Health Benefits of Prebiotics
		22.4 Types of Immune Cells in the Gut
			22.4.1 Cells of Innate Immunity
			22.4.2 Cells for Antigen Absorption
			22.4.3 Cells of Adaptive Immunity
		22.5 Effects of Synbiotics on the Gut Immune System
		22.6 Immunomodulatory Properties of Probiotics and Prebiotics
		22.7 Role of Synbiotics in Various Diseases
			22.7.1 Cancer
			22.7.2 Anti-allergic Effect
			22.7.3 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
			22.7.4 Cardiovascular Disease and Lipid Metabolism
			22.7.5 Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
		References