Microbial Products: Applications and Translational Trends

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Contributors
About the Editors
Part I: Environment
	Chapter 1: Microbial Products: Applications in the Field of Biotechnology and Bioremediation
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 The Role of Microbes in Biodegradation and Bioremediation
		1.3 Environmental Biotechnology
		1.4 Biological Activities of Natural Products and Biologics
			1.4.1 Antibiotics
			1.4.2 Antifungal Agents
			1.4.3 Anticancer Agents
			1.4.4 Immunosuppressive Agent
			1.4.5 Anti-Inflammatory Agents
		1.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	Chapter 2: Microbial Proteases: A Significant Tool for Industrial Applications
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Categories of Proteases
			2.2.1 Reaction Type
			2.2.2 Source
				2.2.2.1 Animal Proteases
				2.2.2.2 Plant Proteases
				2.2.2.3 Microbial Proteases
		2.3 Classification of Microbial Proteases
		2.4 Source of Microbial Proteases
			2.4.1 Bacterial Proteases
			2.4.2 Fungal Proteases
			2.4.3 Viral Proteases
		2.5 Industrial Applications of Microbial Proteases
			2.5.1 Food Industry
			2.5.2 Waste Management
			2.5.3 Leather Industry
			2.5.4 Detergent Industry
			2.5.5 Photographic Industry
			2.5.6 Chemical Industry
			2.5.7 Silk Degumming
			2.5.8 Pharmaceuticals and the Medical Field
			2.5.9 Silver Recovery
			2.5.10 Other Uses
		2.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 3: Microbial Melanin: Role, Biosynthesis, and Applications
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Types of Melanin
		3.3 Role of Melanin in Microbes
			3.3.1 Role of Melanin in Bacteria as a Virulence Factor
			3.3.2 Atmospheric Nitrogen Fixation
			3.3.3 Virulence Mechanism in Melanotic Parasitic Fungi
			3.3.4 Role of Melanin in Nematophagous Activity in Fungi
		3.4 Biosynthesis Pathways of Melanin in Microbes
			3.4.1 DHN Pathways
			3.4.2 DOPA-Pathway
			3.4.3 Enzymes in Melanin Synthesis Pathways
				3.4.3.1 Polyketide Synthase (PKS)
				3.4.3.2 Tyrosinase (EC 1.14.18.1, monophenol, o-diphenol: oxygen oxidoreductase)
				3.4.3.3 Laccase (EC 1.10.3.2)
		3.5 Various Studies on Melanin Production from Microorganisms
		3.6 Applications of Melanin
		3.7 Future Prospects
		References
	Chapter 4: Cyanobacteria as Natural Biofactories
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 The Role of Cyanobacteria in Biofuel Production
			4.2.1 Alcohols: Ethanol and Isobutanol
			4.2.2 Biodiesel
			4.2.3 Biomethane
			4.2.4 Biohydrogen
		4.3 Cyanobacteria as a Source of Natural Sunscreens and Its Applications in Cosmetics
		4.4 Food and Other Dietary Supplements
		4.5 The Role of Cyanobacteria in Bioplastics Production
		4.6 Cyanobacteria-Mediated Bioremediation
		4.7 Cyanobacteria in the Biomedical Field
			4.7.1 Antivirals
				4.7.1.1 Role of Cyanobacteria in Treating SARS and COVID-19
			4.7.2 Anticancer
			4.7.3 Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity
			4.7.4 Antiparasitic Agents
			4.7.5 Protease Inhibition and Immunomodulatory Activity of Cyanobacteria
		4.8 Cyanobacteria as Biofactories for Nanoparticle Synthesis
		4.9 Cyanobacteria as Biofertilizers
		4.10 Conclusion
		Acknowledgement
		References
	Chapter 5: Microbial Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoate from Biological Waste
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Metabolism of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
		5.3 Fermentation
		5.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoate Production Using Biowastes
		5.5 Acknowledgment
		References
	Chapter 6: Exopolysaccharides for Heavy Metal Remediation: A Review of Current Trends and Future Prospects
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Biosynthesis of Bacterial EPS
			6.2.1 Extracellular Synthesis of EP
			6.2.2 Intracellular Synthesis of EPS
		6.3 Metal Binding to EPS
		6.4 Application of EPS for Heavy Metal Remediation
		6.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7: Biosurfactants: A Greener Alternative for a Sustainable Future
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Properties of Biosurfactants
			7.2.1 Surface and Interface Activity
			7.2.2 Temperature and pH Tolerance
			7.2.3 Biodegradability
			7.2.4 Low Toxicity
			7.2.5 Emulsion Framing and Emulsion Breaking
			7.2.6 Anti-adhesive Agents
		7.3 Types of Biosurfactants
			7.3.1 Glycolipids
			7.3.2 Rhamnolipids
			7.3.3 Sophorolipids
			7.3.4 Trehalolipids
			7.3.5 Surfactin
			7.3.6 Lichenysin
			7.3.7 Fatty Acids, Phospholipids and Neutral Lipids
			7.3.8 Bio-emulsifiers
			7.3.9 Particulate Biosurfactants
		7.4 Applications of Biosurfactants
			7.4.1 Pharmaceuticals and Therapeutics
			7.4.2 Antimicrobial Action
			7.4.3 Anticancer Property
			7.4.4 Antiviral Activity
			7.4.5 Cosmetics Industry
			7.4.6 Oil Industry
			7.4.7 Agriculture
			7.4.8 Commercial Laundry Detergents
			7.4.9 Phytoremediation
			7.4.10 Soil Washing
			7.4.11 Metal Bioremediation
		7.5 Future Aspects
		7.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 8: Biosurfactants: Versatile Molecules with Potential Applications
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Composition and Structure of Biosurfactants
		8.3 Types of Biosurfactants
			8.3.1 Polypeptides
			8.3.2 Fatty Acids, Phospholipids, and Neutral Lipids
			8.3.3 Polymeric Biosurfactants
			8.3.4 Particulate Biosurfactants
			8.3.5 Glycolipids
		8.4 Applications of Biosurfactants
			8.4.1 Antimicrobial Activity
			8.4.2 Pharmaceuticals/Cosmetics
			8.4.3 Food Industry
			8.4.4 Textiles
			8.4.5 Agriculture
			8.4.6 Bioremediation
		8.5 Factors Affecting the Production of Biosurfactants
		8.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: Production of Microbial Enzymes Using Spent Mushroom Compost (SMC) and Its Application
		9.1 Introduction
			9.1.1 Spent Mushroom Compost (SMC)
			9.1.2 Composition of Spent Mushroom Compost
		9.2 Enzymes Present in Spent Mushroom Compost
			9.2.1 Ligninolytic Enzymes
				9.2.1.1 Laccase
				9.2.1.2 Lignin Peroxidase (LiP)
				9.2.1.3 Manganese Peroxidase (MnP)
			9.2.2 Hydrolytic Enzymes
				9.2.2.1 Cellulases
				9.2.2.2 Xylanase
				9.2.2.3 β-glucosidases
		9.3 Microbial Production of Enzymes Through Spent Mushroom Compost
			9.3.1 Extraction and Recovery
		9.4 Factors Affecting Enzymes in Spent Mushroom Compost
			9.4.1 pH
			9.4.2 Temperature
			9.4.3 Biomass Type
			9.4.4 Type of Microorganism
		9.5 Industrial Applications and Future Prospects
		9.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: Indigenous Fermented Food and Beverages of Manipur
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Fermented Bamboo Shoot
			10.2.1 Soibum
				10.2.1.1 Nutritional Value
			10.2.2 Soidon
				10.2.2.1 Nutritional Values
		10.3 Fermented Fish
			10.3.1 Ngari
				10.3.1.1 Nutritional Value
			10.3.2 Hentak/Khaiti
				10.3.2.1 Nutritional Value
		10.4 Fermented Beans
			10.4.1 Hawaijar/Theishui
				10.4.1.1 Nutritional Value
		10.5 Fermented Alcoholic Beverages
			10.5.1 Yu angouba/khor
			10.5.2 Atingba
			10.5.3 Yu
			10.5.4 Nutritional Benefits
		10.6 Other Fermented Products
			10.6.1 Inziangsang/Ziang-dui/Ziang-sang
				10.6.1.1 Nutritional Value
			10.6.2 Khaireoshui
			10.6.3 Sāyung
			10.6.4 Sathu
		10.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 11: Microorganisms in Cosmetology
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Microorganisms As Potential Producers for the Cosmetics Industry
		11.3 Bacteria As Potential Producers for the Cosmetics Industry
			11.3.1 Polysaccharides from Bacteria
			11.3.2 Bacterial Metabolites as Biosurfactants
			11.3.3 Role of Bacteria-Derived Hyaluronic Acid in Cosmetic Formulations
			11.3.4 Enzymes and Proteins from Bacteria
		11.4 Algae As Potential Producers for the Cosmetics Industry
			11.4.1 Anti-Skin Aging Role of Algae
			11.4.2 Skin Whitening and Depigmenting Role of Algae
			11.4.3 Role of Algae As Antioxidant
			11.4.4 Role of Algae in Hair Care
			11.4.5 Role of Algae As Moisturizing Agents
			11.4.6 Role of Algae As Thickening Agent
			11.4.7 Algae As Photo Protector/UV Protector
		11.5 Fungi As Potential Producers for the Cosmetics Industry
			11.5.1 Kojic Acid from Fungi
			11.5.2 Lactic Acid from Fungi
			11.5.3 Ceramides from Fungi
			11.5.4 Terpenoids from Fungi
			11.5.5 L-Ergothioneine from Fungi
			11.5.6 Polysaccharides from Fungi
		11.6 Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		Note
		References
Part II: Agriculture
	Chapter 12: Microbes and Their Products in Sustainable Agriculture
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Microbes Promoting Nutrient Mineralization and Availability
			12.2.1 Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizers
			12.2.2 Phosphate-Solubilizing Biofertilizers
			12.2.3 Potassium-Solubilizing Biofertilizers
			12.2.4 Sulfur-Oxidixing Biofertilizers
		12.3 Microorganisms Synthesizing Plant Hormones and Inducing Stress Tolerance
		12.4 Microorganisms Used for Plant Pest Control
			12.4.1 Types of Microbial Biopesticides Used Worldwide
				12.4.1.1 Entomopathogenic Fungi-Based Microbial Pesticide
				12.4.1.2 Virus-Based Microbial Pesticides
				12.4.1.3 Protozoa-Based Microbial Pesticides
				12.4.1.4 Microscopic Nematodes-Based Pesticides
				12.4.1.5 Bacteria-Based Bacterial Pesticides
			12.4.2 Advantages of Using Microbial Pesticides
			12.4.3 Disadvantages of Microbial Insecticides
		12.5 Co-inoculation
		12.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 13: Microbial Biopesticides: An Eco-Friendly Approach for a Sustainable Agro-ecosystem
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Formulation of Microbial Biopesticides
		13.3 Types of Microbial Biopesticides
			13.3.1 Bacteria
				13.3.1.1 Mechanism of Action
				13.3.1.2 Genetic Manipulations in Entomopathogenic Bacterial Strains
			13.3.2 Fungi
				13.3.2.1 Mechanism of Action
				13.3.2.2 Genetic Manipulations in Entomopathogenic Fungi
			13.3.3 Viruses
				13.3.3.1 Mechanism of Action
				13.3.3.2 Genetic Manipulations in Entomopathogenic Viral Agents
			13.3.4 Microsporidia
				13.3.4.1 Mechanism of Action
		13.4 Microbial-Derived Anti-Insectan Metabolites and Compounds
			13.4.1 Bacteria-Isolated Anti-Insectan Compounds
				13.4.1.1 Thuringiensin (Thu)
				13.4.1.2 Thiolutin (THL)
				13.4.1.3 5-n-hexyl-tetrahydrofuran-2-acetic acid (5-HTFA)
				13.4.1.4 Xenorhabdins
			13.4.2 Fungi-Isolated Anti-Insectan Compounds
				13.4.2.1 Phenolic
				13.4.2.2 Polyacetylenes
				13.4.2.3 Aflatoxins
			13.4.3 Actinomycetes-Isolated Anti-Insectan Compounds
			13.4.4 Anti-Insectan Protein Metabolites
				13.4.4.1 Cholesterol Oxidase
				13.4.4.2 Restrictocin
				13.4.4.3 Clostridium Toxin
		13.5 Significance of Microbial Biopesticides
		13.6 Disadvantages of Microbial Biopesticides
		13.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14: Application and Impact of Biofertilizers in Sustainable Agriculture
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Plant–Microbe Interactions
		14.3 Biofertilizers vs Chemical Fertilizer
		14.4 Types of Biofertilizers
			14.4.1 Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizers
				14.4.1.1 Mechanism of Biological Nitrogen Fixation
				14.4.1.2 Sub-groups of N-fixers
			14.4.2 Phosphate-Solubilizing Biofertilizers (PSB)
				14.4.2.1 Mechanisms of Phosphorus Solubilization
			14.4.3 Phosphorus-Mobilizing Biofertilizers: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
				14.4.3.1 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi-Facilitated Networking Beneath the Soil
			14.4.4 Potassium Solubilizers
				14.4.4.1 Potassium-Solubilizing Microorganisms (KSMs)
				14.4.4.2 Mechanism of Potassium Solubilization
			14.4.5 Biofertilizers for Micronutrients
			14.4.6 Silicate-Solubilizing Bacteria (SSB)
			14.4.7 Plant Growth-Promoting Biofertilizers
		14.5 Preparation of Biofertilizers
			14.5.1 Production of Starter Cultures (Mother Cultures)
			14.5.2 Production of Broth Cultures
			14.5.3 Production of Final Product in Fermenter
			14.5.4 Preparation of Carrier Material
			14.5.5 Filling and Packaging
			14.5.6 Quality Checking and Storage
			14.5.7 Bulk Production of Mycorrhizal Biofertilizers
		14.6 Biofertilizer Application Methods to Agricultural Crops
			14.6.1 Seed Treatment
			14.6.2 Seedling Root Dip
			14.6.3 Soil Application
			14.6.4 Precautions to be Followed Before Biofertilizer Application
		14.7 Quality Control of Biofertilizers
		14.8 Future Prospects and Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 15: Microbial Endophytes of Medicinal Plants as an Emerging Bioresource for Novel Therapeutic Compounds
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Microbial Endophytes
		15.3 Endophytes as Sources of Antimicrobial Agents
		15.4 Microbial Endophytes as Sources of Therapeutic Drugs
		15.5 Microbial Endophytes as Source of Antidiabetic Drugs
		15.6 Microbial Endophytes as Source of Anticancer Drugs
		15.7 Microbial Endophytes as Source of Antioxidants
		15.8 Microbial Endophytes as Source of Antimalarial Drugs
		15.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 16: Utility of Probiotics in Aquaculture
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Probiotics and Their Types
			16.2.1 Feed or Gut Probiotics
			16.2.2 Water Probiotics
		16.3 Selection Criteria for Probiotics
			16.3.1 Essential Criteria
			16.3.2 Favorable Criteria
		16.4 Probiotics Administration Methods
		16.5 Commercial Probiotic Preparations
		16.6 Probiotics Action Mechanisms
			16.6.1 Competitive Exclusion of Opportunistic Pathogens by Probiotics
			16.6.2 Mitigation of Pathogens by Production of Antimicrobial Materials
			16.6.3 Inhibition of Pathogens by Competing for Nutrients
			16.6.4 Probiotics Act by Improving the Quality of Water
			16.6.5 Interruption of Quorum Signaling
			16.6.6 Immunomodulation/Augmentation of Host Immune System
		16.7 The Importance of Probiotics in Aquaculture
			16.7.1 Maintenance and Preservation of Water Quality
			16.7.2 Augmentation of Growth and Survival Rate
			16.7.3 Improves Nutrient Utilization, Digestion and Feed Efficiency
			16.7.4 Effects on Phytoplankton
			16.7.5 Bacteriostatic Effects of Probiotics
			16.7.6 Strengthening of the Immune System
			16.7.7 Antibacterial Properties of Probiotics
			16.7.8 Antifungal Properties of Probiotics
			16.7.9 Antiviral Activity of Probiotics
			16.7.10 Effects on Reproduction
			16.7.11 Improvement in Stress Tolerance
		16.8 Limitations of Probiotics and Safety Considerations
		16.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	Chapter 17: The Potential Role of Microbes in the Sustainable Growth of Ornamental Fish Culture
		17.1 Introduction: Background and Driving Forces
		17.2 Microbes and Health Management Strategies in Aquarium Fish
		17.3 Traditional Ornamental Fish Food
		17.4 Probiotics: A Healthy Alternative Food for Ornamental Fish
		17.5 Selection of Probiotics
		17.6 Probiotics: Mechanism of Action
		17.7 Applications of Probiotics in Ornamental Fish Culture
			17.7.1 Probiotics and Fish Metabolism
			17.7.2 Role of Probiotics in the Growth of Fish Body
			17.7.3 Probiotics and Stress Management
			17.7.4 The Role of Probiotics in the Reproductive Cycle
			17.7.5 Probiotics and Immune System Enhancement
			17.7.6 Use of Microbes and Water Quality
			17.7.7 Probiotics and Inhibition of Pathogens
		17.8 Safety Concerns with the Use of Probiotics
		17.9 Conclusions
		Acknowledgment
		References
	Chapter 18: Microbial Metabolites as Fish Immunostimulants: Implications for Aquaculture and Fish Vaccines
		18.1 Introduction
			18.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Immunostimulants
		18.2 Fungal Derivatives Tested for Their Immunostimulant Activity in Fish
			18.2.1 Other Fungal Derivatives
		18.3 Commercial Products Tested for Their Immunostimulatory Activity in Fish
		18.4 Bacterial Products Tested for Their Immunostimulatory Activity in Fish
			18.4.1 Microbial Surfactants
			18.4.2 Freund’s (complete) Adjuvant (FCA)
			18.4.3 Muramyl Dipeptide (MDP)
			18.4.4 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
			18.4.5 Curdlan
			18.4.6 Flagellin
			18.4.7 Bacterins
			18.4.8 FK-565
		18.5 Algal Derivatives
		18.6 Mechanisms of Action
		18.7 Mode of Administration
			18.7.1 Injection
			18.7.2 Feed
			18.7.3 Immersion
		18.8 Microbial Derivatives As Adjuvants in Fish Vaccines
			18.8.1 FCA
			18.8.2 β-glucan
			18.8.3 Lipopeptides
			18.8.4 Flagellin
			18.8.5 CpG Oligodeoxynucleotides
			18.8.6 Algal Derivatives
		18.9 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Medicine
	Chapter 19: Probiotics for Improving COVID-19 Infection-Linked Microbiome Disparities in Gut
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Healthy Human Microbiome
		19.3 Gut Microbiota
		19.4 The Contribution of the Gut Microbiota to Low Immunity
		19.5 The Role of Probiotics in Various Diseases
		19.6 Microbiota Related to Obesity
		19.7 Effect of SARS-CoV-2 on Gut Microbiota
		19.8 Bacteriocin Compounds/Metabolites Released by Gut Microbiome
		19.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 20: Algal Products in Medicine
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Natural Products Obtained from Algae
			20.2.1 Antibacterial Properties of Algal Products
			20.2.2 Antiviral Properties of Algal Products
			20.2.3 Antifungal Activity of Algal Products
			20.2.4 Anticancer Properties of Algal Products
			20.2.5 Anti-inflammatory Activity of Algal Products
			20.2.6 Antioxidant Activity of Algal Products
			20.2.7 Antiprotozoal Activity of Algal Products
			20.2.8 Other Medically Relevant Algal Compounds
		20.3 Products Obtained from Algae Using Biotechnological Tools
		20.4 Use of Algal Products in Tissue Engineering and Other Biomedical Applications
		20.5 Summary
		References
	Chapter 21: Microbial Production and Emerging Applications of Lantibiotics
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Microbial Production of Lantibiotics
		21.3 Lantibiotics Produced by Actinobacteria
		21.4 Lantibiotics Produced by Lactic Acid Bacteria
		21.5 Applications of Lantibiotics
		21.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	Chapter 22: Bacterial Drug Delivery Vehicles for Targeted Treatment of Tumors
		22.1 Suitability of Bacteria for Fabricating Drug Delivery Vehicles
		22.2 Bacterial Drug Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy
			22.2.1 Bacteriosomes
			22.2.2 Minicells
			22.2.3 Bacterial Spores
			22.2.4 Genetically Modified Bacteria
			22.2.5 Bacteriobots
			22.2.6 Smart Bacterial Nano-Carriers
		22.3 Challenges Associated with Bacteriotherapy in Oncology
		22.4 Future Prospects and Conclusion
		Acknowledgment
		References
	Chapter 23: Fungal Products in Medicine
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Contributions of Fungi in Therapeutics
		23.3 Products Obtained from Fungi
			23.3.1 Antibacterial Activity of Fungal Products
			23.3.2 Antiviral Activity of Fungal Products
			23.3.3 Anticancer Activity of Fungal Products
			23.3.4 Antifungal Activity of Fungal Products
			23.3.5 Other Medically Relevant Products
		23.4 Fungal Vaccines
			23.4.1 Whole Organism, Live-Attenuated Vaccines
			23.4.2 Whole Organism, Heat-Killed or Formalin-Inactivated Vaccines
			23.4.3 Recombinant (Subunit) Vaccines
			23.4.4 Conjugate Vaccines
			23.4.5 DNA Vaccines
			23.4.6 Antigen-Primed Dendritic Cells
			23.4.7 Passive Immunization
		23.5 Products Obtained FROM FUNGI Using Biotechnological Tools
		23.6 Tissue Engineering and Other Biomedical Applications
			23.6.1 Targeted Drug Delivery
		23.7 Summary
		References
	Chapter 24: Virosomes: A Drug Delivery System
		24.1 Introduction
			24.1.1 Structure and Composition
			24.1.2 Properties
			24.1.3 Viruses Used
			24.1.4 Advantages of Virosomes
				24.1.4.1 Comparisons With Liposomes/Actual Viruses
			24.1.5 Characterization
		24.2 Attachment and Fusion
		24.3 Interaction with Immune System
		24.4 Preparation
		24.5 Applications of Virososmes
			24.5.1 Virosomes for Vaccination
				24.5.1.1 Virosomes for Antigen Delivery
				24.5.1.2 Virosomes as Adjuvants and Complexed with Adjuvants
				24.5.1.3 Some Commercial Virosome-Based Vaccines
			24.5.2 Virosomes for Delivery of Nucleic Acids
				24.5.2.1 Virosome for DNA Delivery
				24.5.2.2 Delivery of siRNA by Virosomes
			24.5.3 Virosomes in Cancer Treatment
				24.5.3.1 Influenza Virosomes in Cancer Treatment
				24.5.3.2 Sendai Virosomes in Cancer Treatment
				24.5.3.3 Virosomes as Drug Delivery Agents in Cancer Treatment
				24.5.3.4 Cervical Cancer Treatment With Virosomes
			24.5.4 Virosomes in Covid Treatment
			24.5.5 Limitations of Virosomes
		24.6 Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 25: Bioactive Compounds As Potential Remedy Against Coronaviruses
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)
			25.2.1 Coronaviruses
			25.2.2 Genome and Proteins
			25.2.3 Replication and Life-Cycle
			25.2.4 Pathogenesis
			25.2.5 Epidemiology
		25.3 Advantages of Bioactive Compounds
		25.4 Significant Sources of Bioactive Compounds Against COVID
			25.4.1 Plant Derived
			25.4.2 Algae Derived
			25.4.3 Fungi Derived
			25.4.4 Animal Derived
			25.4.5 Marine
		25.5 Different Modes of Action of Bioactive Compounds Against Coronaviruses
		25.6 Different Viral Targets for Bioactive Compounds Against COVID
			25.6.1 Spike Protein
			25.6.2 Main Protease
			25.6.3 Papain-like Protease
			25.6.4 RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase
			25.6.5 Nucleocapsid (N) Proteins
			25.6.6 Other Viral Targets
			25.6.7 Host ACE2 and TMPRSS2 Proteins
		25.7 Bioactive Formulation As Herbal Therapy
		25.8 Repurposing Bioactive Peptides for COVID Therapy
		25.9 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: In-Silico and Mathematical Tools
	Chapter 26: Bioinformatics and Vaccine Development: Overview and Prospects
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Immunoinformatics
		26.3 Immunomics
		26.4 Reverse Vaccinology
		26.5 Structural Vaccinology
		26.6 Infectious Diseases and Vaccines
			26.6.1 Tuberculosis
			26.6.2 Influenza
			26.6.3 Zika Virus Disease
			26.6.4 COVID-19
		26.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	Chapter 27: Petri Net Modeling as an Aid in Bioprocess Designing
		27.1 Introduction
			27.1.1 Preliminaries of Petri Net (PN) Modeling
			27.1.2 Definition
		27.2 Why are Petri Nets Necessary for the Fermentation Process?
		27.3 Modeling and Notation of the Elements of a Petri Net for Fermentation Process
		27.4 Petri Net Modeling of the Fermentation Process
		27.5 Modeling Description and Computational Steps
			27.5.1 Firing rule
			27.5.2 Reachability Graph
		27.6 Workflow Petri Net Designer Tool (WoPeD 3.8.0) for Fermentation Process
		27.7 Conclusions and Scope
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 28: Applications of Machine Learning in Bioprocess Development and Optimization
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 Bioprocess Development and Modeling
		28.3 Building Mathematical Models for Bioprocesses
		28.4 Stages of Bioprocess Development
		28.5 Bioprocess Optimization Approaches
			28.5.1 Sequential Optimization
			28.5.2 Parallel Optimization
		28.6 Machine Learning (ML)-Based Bioprocess Optimization
		28.7 Conclusion
		References
Index