Medicinal Plants used in Traditional Persian Medicine

Cover
Dedication
Medicinal Plants Used in Traditional Persian Medicine
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
About the Editors
Preface
1 The History of Persian Medicine At a Glance, Emphasizing the Life and Works of Avicenna
	Abstract
	History of Medicine in Iran
		Historical and geographical position of Iran
		Medicine in ancient Persia
		Medicine in ancient Greece
			The history of Islamic medicine
			The history of Islamic medicine in Iran
	Avicenna
		Biography
		Principal works
			Philosophy
			Medicine
			Students of Avicenna
	Acknowledgment
	Note
	References
2 Botany, Collection, and Cultivation of Some Medicinal Plants used in Traditional Medicine of Iran
	Abstract
	Botany, Ecology, and Taxonomy of Medicinal Plants
		Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H. Hurter & Mabb
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Senegalia senegal (L.) Britton, N.L. Britton & P. Wilson, Sci. Surv. Porto Rico & Virgin Islands 6: 538 (1930)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Adiantum capillus-veneris L., Sp. Pl. [Linnaeus] 2: 1096 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Ajuga chamaepitys (L.) Scherb., Pl. Verticill. Unilab. Gen. Sp.: 24 (1774)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Alpinia officinarum Hance, J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 13: 6 (1871)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Althaea officinalis L., Sp. Pl. 2: 686 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Prunus amygdalus (L.) Batsch
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Aristolochia bottae Jaub. & Spach, Ill. Pl. Orient. 1(10): 173, t. 98 (1844)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Aristolochia fontanesii Boiss. & Reut., Pugill. Pl. Afr. Bor. Hispan.: 108 (1852)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Aristolochia rotunda L., Sp. Pl.: 962 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Artemisia absinthium L., Sp. Pl.: 848 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Artemisia montana (Nakai) Pamp., Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital., Ser. 2, 36: 461 (1930)
			Morphology
		Astragalus brachycalyx Fisch., Exsicc. (Pl. Alepp. Kurd. Moss.) 1843: no. 363 (1843)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Astragalus fasciculifolius Boissier, Diagn. Pl. Orient. 2: 73 (1843)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Astragalus spp. (15 species)
		1. Astragalus gummifer Labill., J. Phys. (Halle) 1: 46 (1790)
		2. Astragalus gossypinus Fischer, Exsicc. (Pl. Alepp. Kurd. Moss.) 1843: no. 398 (1843)
		3. Astragalus microcephalus Willd., Sp. Pl., ed. 4, 3: 1332 (1802)
		4. Astragalus verus Olivier, Voy. Emp. Othoman 3: t. 44 (1807)
		5. Astragalus myriacanthus Boissier, Diagn. Pl. Orient. 9: 91 (1849)
		6. Astragalus longistylus Bunge, Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. Saint Pétersbourg, Sér. 7, 11(16): 81 (1868)
		7. Astragalus hypsogeton Bunge, Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. Saint Pétersbourg, Sér. 7, 11(16): 82 (1868)
		8. Astragalus echidna Bunge, Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. Saint Pétersbourg, Sér. 7, 11(16): 82 (1868)
		9. Astragalus andalanicus Boissier & Hausskn., P.E. Boissier, Fl. Orient. 2: 345 (1872)
		10. Astragalus compactus Lam., Encycl. 1: 322 (1783)
		11. Astragalus globiflorus Boissier, Diagn. Pl. Orient. 9: 81 (1849)
		12. Astragalus pycnocephalus Fischer, Exsicc. (Pl. Alepp. Kurd. Moss.) 1843: no. 373b (1843)
		13. Astragalus albispinus Sirjev & Bornm., Feddes Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 52: 2 (1943)
		14. Astragalus caspicus M. Bieb., Fl. Taur. -Caucas. 2: 204 (1808)
		15. Astragalus floccosus Boissier, Diagn. Pl. Orient. 9: 81 (1849)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Bryonia alba L., Sp. Pl.: 1012 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Bryonia cretica L., Sp. Pl.: 1013 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Clinopodium brevifolium (Wahlenb.) Bräuchler & Hjertson, Phytotaxa 356: 74 (2018)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Carthamus tinctorius L., Sp. Pl.: 830 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Senna alexandrina var. alexandrina
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Centaurium erythraea Rafn, Danm. Holst. Fl. 2: 75 (1800)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Ceratonia siliqua L., Sp. Pl.: 1026 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Cichorium intybus L., Sp. Pl.: 1026 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Cinnamomum aromaticum Nees, N. Wallich, Pl. Asiat. Rar. 2: 74 (1831)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Cinnamomum verum J. Presl, F. Berchtold & J.S. Presl, Prir. Rostlin Aneb. Rostl. 2: 36 (1823)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad., Linnaea 12: 414 (1838)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C. Chr., Dansk Bot. Ark. 4(3): 18 (1922)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari, Bull. Bot. Surv. India 6: 327 (1965)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl., A.L.P.P. de Candolle & A.C.P. de Candolle, Monogr. Phan. 4: 10 (1883)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Cordia myxa L., Sp. Pl.: 199 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav., Elench. Pl. Horti Matr.: 37 (1803)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Corylus avellana L., Sp. Pl.: 998 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Costus spicatus (Jacq.) Sw., Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ.: 11 (1788)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Crocus sativus L., Sp. Pl.: 36 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Cuscuta campestris Yunck., Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 18: 138 (1932)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Cuscuta epithymum (L.) L. Amoen. Acad. 4: 478 (1759)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Cydonia oblonga Mill., Gard. Dict. ed. 8: no. 1 (1768)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Delphinium staphisagria L., Sp. Pl.: 531 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Ferula ammoniacum (D. Don) Spalik, M. Panahi, Piwczynski & Puchalka, Taxon 64: 780 (2015)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f., Trans. & Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh 30: 623 (1882)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn, Ann. Mus. Goulandris 4: 204 (1978)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich, J.B.G. Bory de Saint-Vincent, Dict. Class. Hist. Nat. 6: 19 (1824)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Phyllanthus emblica L., Sp. Pl.: 982 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Erysimum × cheiri (L.) Crantz, Cl. Crucif. Emend.: 116 (1769)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Ferula assa-foetida L., Sp. Pl.: 248 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Ferula gummosa Boiss., Diagn. Pl. Orient. Ser. 2, 2: 92 (1856)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Ferula persica Willd., Sp. Pl., ed. 4, 1: 1418 (1798)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Sp. Pl.: 742 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Helleborus niger L., Sp. Pl.: 558 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Hyoscyamus niger L., Sp. Pl.: 179 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Iris florentina L., Syst. Nat. ed. 10, 2: 863 (1759)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Juniperus sabina L., Sp. Pl.: 1039 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Lawsonia inermis L., Sp. Pl.: 340 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Liquidambar orientalis Miller, Gard. Dict. ed. 8: no. 2 (1768)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Malva sylvestris L., Sp. Pl.: 689 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Marrubium vulgare L., Sp. Pl.: 583 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Myrtus communis L., Sp. Pl.: 471 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Nymphaea alba L., Sp. Pl.: 510 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Opopanax hispidus (Friv.) Griseb., Spic. Fl. Rumel. 1: 378 (1843)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Phoenix dactylifera L., Sp. Pl.: 1188 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D. Don, A.B. Lambert, Descr. Pinus, ed. 3, 2: 144 bis (1832)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Pinus pinea L., Sp. Pl.: 1000 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Pistacia atlantica Desf., Fl. Atlant. 2: 364 (1799)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Pistacia vera L., Sp. Pl.: 1025 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Plantago ovata Forssk., Fl. Aegypt. -Arab.: 31 (1775)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Polypodium vulgare L., Sp. Pl.: 1085 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Portulaca oleracea L., Sp. Pl.: 445 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Prunus armeniaca L., Sp. Pl.: 474 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Prunus amygdalus Batsch, Beytr. Entw. Gewächsreich 1: 30 (1801)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Papaver somniferum L., Sp. Pl.: 508 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Punica granatum L., Sp. Pl.: 472 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Quercus infectoria G. Olivier, Voy. Emp. Othoman 1: 252 (1801)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Rheum officinale Baill., Adansonia 10: 246 (1872)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Rhus coriaria L., Sp. Pl.: 265 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Ruta graveolens L., Sp. Pl.: 383 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Styrax officinalis L., Sp. Pl.: 444 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry, Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts, n.s., 18: 196 (1939)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Tamarix gallica L., Sp. Pl.: 270 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Pl. Coromandel 2: t. 198 (1805)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Terminalia chebula Retz., Observ. Bot. 5: 31 (1788)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Rosa × damascena Mill., Gard. Dict. ed. 8: Rosa no. 15 (1768)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Teucrium polium L., Sp. Pl.: 566 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav., Elench. Pl. Horti Matr.: 37 (1803)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Trigonella foenum-graceum L., Sp. Pl.: 777 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Urtica urens L., Sp. Pl.: 984 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Valeriana officinalis L., Sp. Pl.: 31 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Veratrum album L., Sp. Pl.: 1044 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Viola odorata L., Sp. Pl.: 934 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Vitex agnus-castus L., Sp. Pl.: 638 (1753)
			Distribution
			Morphology
		Ziziphus jujuba Miller, Gard. Dict. ed. 8: no. 1 (1768)
			Distribution
			Morphology
	Cultivation Methods of Some Important Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Iran
		Saffron (Crocus sativus)
		Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.)
		Damask rose (Rosa × damascena Mill.)
	Collection of Some Important Wild Medicinal Plants of Iran
		Tragacanth (Astragalus gummifer)
		Asafoetida (Ferula assa-foetida L.)
		Galbanum (Ferula gummosa Boiss.)
	References
3 Relationships Between Traditional Persian/Iranian Medicine and Other Traditional Medical Systems
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Pre-Islamic Period (c.8000 bc–6th Century ad)
	Medieval Islamic Period (7th–10th Century ad)
	Future Role of Traditional Persian/Iranian Medicine
	Interactions with Islamic Traditional Medicine, Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, Kampo, and Monastic Medicine
	Herbal Medicinal Products as a Source for Modern Evidence-Based Medical Systems
	References
4 Nervous System Disorders Including Different Forms of Stresses and Alzheimer’s Disease
	Abstract
	Special Advantages of Traditional Persian Medicine in the Treatment of Nervous System Disorders
		The brain and nervous system disorders in the view of Canon
	Melancholia in the View of Canon
		Depression and the heart in the view of Canon
		Non-pharmacologic depression treatment in Canon
		Pharmacologic depression treatment in Canon
	Herbal Medicines for Neuro-System Health
		Polyherbal formulations and synergistic effects
		Drugs used in the treatment of nervous system disorders
	Conclusion
	Note
	References
5 An Evidence-Based Review of Medicinal Plants Cited in Canon of Medicine for Management of Inflammatory Bowel Disease
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Irritable Bowel Disease in View of Avicenna
	Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Development of Irritable Bowel Disease
	Medicinal Plants Cited in Canon of Medicine for Irritable Bowel Disease
		Trigonella foenum-graceum L.
		Linum usitatissimum L.
		Althaea officinalis L.
		Matricaria chamomilla L.
		Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr.
		Lepidium sativum L.
		Anethum graveolens L.
		Malva sylvestris L.
		Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Engl.
		Rosa × damascena Herrm.
		Myrtus communis L.
		Solanum nigrum L.
		Coriandrum sativum L.
		Viola odorata L.
		Quercus infectoria G. Olivier
		Medicago sativa L.
		Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B. Fedtsch., Cuminum cyminum L.
		Allium ampeloprasum L., Allium schoenoprasum L.
		Cydonia oblonga Mill.
		Plantago ovata Forssk., Plantago psyllium L.
		Punica granatum L.
		Rhus coriaria L.
		Plantago major L., Plantago lanceolata L.
		Malus species
		Berberis vulgaris L., Berberis aristata DC.
		Rumex species
		Pistacia lentiscus L.
		Commiphora molmol (Engl.) Engl. ex Tschirch
		Elaeagnus angustifolia L.
	Conclusion
	References
6 Herbal Medicine for Cardiovascular Disease in View of Avicenna
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Cardiovascular Diseases and Treatments in View of Avicenna
		Heart dystemperaments
		Heart warm inflammation (waram ḥār)
		Syncope (al-ghashi)
		Sudden force decrease (soqūt-al-qowah)
		Palpitation (khafaqān)
		Myocardial infarction (mawt e faj’ah)
	Brief Review on Some Types of Cardiovascular Diseases and Their Treatments in Modern Medicine
		Arrhythmia
			Treatment
		Shock
			Treatment
	Scientifc Evaluation of Medicinal Plants Mentioned for the Management of Cardiovascular Diseases in Avicenna’s Canon
		Crocus sativus L.
		Melissa officinalis L.
		Punica granatum L.
		Cydonia oblonga Mill.
		Moringa oleifera Lam.
	References
7 An Evidence-Based Review of Medicinal Plants Prescribed by Avicenna for Management of Diabetes
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Diabetes in Avicenna’s Point of View
	Treatments Prescribed by Avicenna
	Medicinal Plants Prescribed by Avicenna for Diabetes Management
		Oral formulations
			Cucurbita pepo and Cucurbita maxima
			Cucumis sativus
			Plantago indica
			Rosa × damascena
			Acacia arabica
			Punica granatum
			Lactuca sativa
			Papaver somniferum
		Topical formulations
	Conclusion
	References
8 An Evidence-Based Review of Medicinal Plants for Cough Management Cited by Avicenna
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Medicinal Plants Cited in Canon of Medicine for Cough Management
		Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.
		Adiantum capillus-veneris L.
		Althaea officinalis L.
		Cordia myxa L.
		Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl.
		Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C. Chr.
		Cydonia oblonga Mill.
		Cucurbita pepo L.
		Ferula gummosa Boiss.
		Ferula persica Willd.
		Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn
		Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
		Hyssopus officinalis L.
		Linum usitatissimum L.
		Liquidambar orientalis Mill.
		Malva sylvestris L.
		Myrtus communis L.
		Nymphaea alba L.
		Opopanax chironius (L.) W.D.J. Koch
		Papaver somniferum L.
		Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D. Don
		Pistacia terebinthus L.
		Pistacia vera L.
		Plantago ovata Forssk.
		Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb
		Viola odorata L.
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
9 An Evidence-Based Review of Medicinal Plants for Tuberculosis Management Cited by Avicenna
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Tuberculosis in View of Avicenna
		Brief review on the respiratory system as described in Canon of Medicine
		Tuberculosis
		Common treatments for tuberculosis mentioned in Canon of Medicine
	Brief Review on the Most Common Types of Tuberculosis and Their Treatments in Modern Medicine
		Tuberculosis
		Latent tuberculosis infection
		Forms of disease
			Pulmonary tuberculosis
			Extrapulmonary tuberculosis
		Treatment
			Standard treatment
			Resistance to standard drugs and preventive treatment
		Adverse effects
	Scientific Evaluation of Medicinal Plants Mentioned for the Management of Tuberculosis in Canon of Medicine
		Aristolochia species
		Capparis spinosa L.
		Carum carvi L.
		Cichorium intybus L.
		Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
		Myrtus communis L.
		Populus alba L.
		Rosa × damascena Mill.
		Santalum album L.
		Viola odorata L.
	Concluding Remarks
	References
10 Application of Certain Medicinal Herbs to Cure Various Viral Diseases and Enhance the Human Immune System
	Abstract
	Nasal Discharge and Catarrh
		Nasal discharge and catarrh in view of Avicenna
			Catarrh clinical manifestation
		Common cold in modern medicine
			Pathobiology
			Clinical manifestation
			Treatment
	Smallpox and Measles
		Smallpox in view of Avicenna
		Smallpox in modern medicine
			Pathobiology
			Treatment
			Prevention
		Measles in view of Avicenna
			Treatment of smallpox and measles
			Preventive remedies
			Treatment of smallpox scars
		Measles in modern medicine
			Pathobiology
			Treatment
	Herpes
		Herpes in view of Avicenna
			Treatment
		Herpes in modern medicine
			Treatment
	Rabies
		Rabies in view of Avicenna
			Treatment
		Rabies in modern medicine
			Diagnosis
			Pathobiology
			Treatment
	Warts
		Warts in view of Avicenna
			Treatment
		Papillomavirus in modern medicine
			Pathobiology
			Clinical manifestation
			Treatment
	Pharmacologic Aspects
	References
11 Treatment of Various Skin Diseases, Including Psoriasis, Skin Cancer, Ultraviolet Protection, Skin Dryness, and Allergic Reactions
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Skin in View of Canon
	Six Necessary Measures of Hygiene Principles
	Holistic Management in the Modern Era
	Decoding of Humors in Traditional Persian Medicine
	General Treatment Protocols in Traditional Medicine
	Makeup and Beauty in Canon
	Inflammatory Skin Lesions, Vesicle
		Bosur labanieh (acne)
			Treatment
			Treatment
	Skin Cancer
		Judham (leprosy)
			Treatment
	Skin Pigmentation Disorders
		Baraṣ (vitiligo)
			Treatment
		Skin hyperpigmentation
			Treatment
	Dermatitis
		Atopic dermatitis
			Treatment
	Qoobā (Psoriasis)
	Baraṣ aswad
	Sʿafah
		Psoriasis treatment
	A Brief Review of Some Common Modern Dermatologic Treatments
		Vitiligo
		Atopic dermatitis
		Acne
		Psoriasis
		Melasma
	References
12 Use of Certain Herbal Drugs to Cure Various Gynecological Disorders
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Vaginitis in View of Avicenna
	Treatment of Vaginitis in View of Avicenna
	Scientific Evaluation of Medicinal Plants for Management of Vaginitis Mentioned in Canon of Medicine
		Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile; basionym: Mimosa nilotica L.
		Artemisia absinthium L.
		Ceratonia siliqua L.
		Cinnamomum verum J. Presl; synonym: Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume
		Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.; basionym: Cucumis colocynthis L.
		Corylus avellana L.
		Crocus sativus L.
		Iris species
		Juglans regia L.
		Lepidium sativum L.
		Myristica fragrans Houtt.
		Myrtus communis L.
		Ocimum basilicum L.
		Olea europaea L.
		Phoenix dactylifera L.
		Pimpinella anisum L.
		Pistacia lentiscus L.
		Portulaca oleracea L.
		Punica granatum L.
		Quercus infectoria G. Olivier
		Rubus fruticosus L.
		Rumex species
		Tamarix species
		Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav.; basionym: Satureja capitata L.
	Conclusion
	References
13 Medicinal Plants for Anal Fissure in the Canon of Avicenna: An Evidence-Based Review
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Anal Fissure and Its Common Treatments in the View of Avicenna
	Scientific Evaluation of the Medicinal Herbs Recommended for Anal Fissure in the Canon
		Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.; basionym: Aloe perfoliata var. vera L.
		Astragalus gummifer Labill.
		Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Engl.; basionym: Balsamodendrum mukul Hook. ex Stocks
		Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f.
		Erysimum × cheiri (L.) Crantz; basionym: Cheiranthus × cheiri L.
		Lawsonia inermis L.
		Olea europaea L.
		Prunus armeniaca L.
		Quercus infectoria G. Olivier
		Rosa × damascena Herrm.
		Taraxacum campylodes G.E. Haglund
		Vitex agnus-castus L.
	References
14 An Evidence-Based Review of Medicinal Plants for Sexual Dysfunction Management Cited by Avicenna
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Sexual Disorders in View of Avicenna
		Anatomy of the genital system
		Semen, from the Traditional Persian Medicine perspective
		Reasons for low sexual desire
		Structural and dystemperament (su-e-mizāj) disorders in the organs that produce and transmit semen (testes, semen ducts, and penis)
			Dry dystemperament
			Cold dystemperament
			Warm dystemperament
			Wet dystemperament
			Cold and dry dystemperament
			Phlegmatic syndrome
		Disorders in other essential body organs (weakness of chief organs, ḍaʿf -e aʿḍā-e-raeisah)
			Weakness in brain function (ḍaʿf -e demagh)
			Weakness in heart function (ḍaʿf -e qalb)
			Weakness in liver function (ḍaʿf -e kabed)
			Weakness in stomach function (ḍaʿf -e maʿdah)
			Weakness in kidney function (ḍaʿf -e kolyah)
			Disorders in the middle organs between the chief organs (aʿḍā-e-raeisah) and the genital system
			Disorders in particular adjacent organs
			Systemic disorders
		Semen disorders
		Psychological and mental disorders (aʿrāḍ-e-nafsāni)
			Other causes including gas (riḥ) deficiency, drugs, and prolonged lack of intercourse
	Low Sexual Desire from the Perspective of Modern Medicine
		Causes of low sexual desire
			Biologic causes
			Psychosocial causes
		Treatment of low sexual desire
	Pharmacologic Aspects of Medicinal Plants for Treating Low Sexual Desire Cited by Avicenna
		Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)
		Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)
		Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)
		Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae)
		Brassica rapa (Brassicaceae)
		Cicer arietinum (Fabaceae)
		Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Lauraceae)
		Crocus sativus (Iridaceae)
		Cyperus esculentus (Cyperaceae)
		Daucus carota (Apiaceae)
		Eruca sativa (Brassicaceae)
		Ferula assa-foetida (Apiaceae)
		Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae)
		Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)
		Mentha species (Lamiaceae)
		Musa × paradisiaca (Musaceae)
		Pastinaca sativa (Apiaceae)
		Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae)
		Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)
		Piper longum (Piperaceae)
		Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)
		Pistacia terebinthus (Anacardiaceae)
		Prunus amygdalus (Rosaceae)
		Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae)
		Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)
		Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae)
		Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fabaceae)
		Urtica pilulifera (Urticaceae)
		Withania somnifera (Solanaceae)
		Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)
	References
15 The Current Situation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants’ Industry, Research, Education, and Standardization in Iran. How Can Traditional Persian Medicine Products be Successfully Adapted to the Needs of the European Market?
	Abstract
	Current Situation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Iran
		Cultivation and wild collection
		Research and education
		Industry
		National policy-making processes aiming to improve the market for medicinal plants
	Adaptation of Traditional Persian Medicine Products to European Market Needs
		Quality assessment
		Contaminants
		Use of plant protection products
		Heavy metals
		Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
		Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
		Protection of genetic resources/benefit sharing
		Evidence-based practices in Traditional Iranian/Persian Medicine
		Markets for herbal teas, medicinal plants, and phytopharmacy
	References
Index
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